Afghan progress in the fourth year plan

CONTENTS Foreword ... ... ... ... 5 Outline ... ... ... ... 5 Planning ... ... ... ... 8 Education ... ... ... ... 10 Kabul University ... ... ... 21 Agriculture ... ... ... ... 26 Community Development ... ... 31 Mines and Industries ... ... 34 Public Works ... ... ... ... 39 Communications ... ... ... 45 Commerce ... ... ... ... 47 Public Health ... ... ... ... 51 SECTION II Geographical Features ... ... ... 54 Climate ... ... ... ... ... 58 History ... ... ... ... ... 61 The People ... ... ... ... 68 Language and Culture ... ... ... 71 Constitution ... ... ... ... 73 Government ... ... ... ... 83 Tourist Map ... ... ... ... 88 Front cover: The 8,000 ft. Valley of Bamyan, in the heart of the Hindukush mountains. In the centre of the cliff is one of the two gigantic statues of Buddha.

Foreword KEEPING pace with rapid progress the world over, Afghanistan has been taking great strides forward since the Five Year Plan began its first year in September, 1956. This Plan is neither ambitious nor modest. It was prepared simply to meet the most important requirements of the country with the minimum cost and maximum utility. The story of the implementation of the first three years of the Plan has been reported by the Afghan Information Bureau in three similar publications at the end of each year. The aim of the present publication is to describe the implementation of the Plan in its fourth year, as it has been reported by various Government and other agencies responsible for its execution. Every effort has been made to summarize the material and present the different phases of the Plan in a precise form. In a few cases, however, the report covers only the first half of the fourth year because it was felt that facts and figures should not be rushed at the expense of accuracy. The Information Bureau, Royal Afghan Embassy, 1, Kensington Church Court, London, W.8. OUTLINE OF THE FIVE-YEAR PLAN THE Ministry of Planning, established in 1957 by Act of Parliament, is directly responsible for the co-ordination of all projects carried out by the various other Ministries in connection with the Five Year Plan. The main emphasis, however, has been placed on agriculture. The Plan in this case is based on the principle that both equipment and knowledge should be made available to the farmers, so that they can increase their output per jirib (half-acre), and per individual beast. Research stations will be established to study the problems arising, and these will conduct campaigns against animal and plant pestilences and diseases. Agricultural mechanisation will also be under-taken, especially in the northern and south-western provinces. Farming schools will be set up, in addition to the present High Schools and Faculty of Agriculture, and there will be seasonal courses in the farms and villages for the further training of personnel. All this is to be carried out because Afghanistan is a predominantly agricul-tural country, the main means of live-lihood being farming and the tending of livestock. With the current conditions receiving proper attention, it is expected that farm output will not only suffice for the internal needs of the country, but that it will be possible to export more products such as cotton and wool, to the advantage of the people. New dams will be constructed on the following rivers: Kunduz in Kataghan, Kokcha in Kataghan, Sardeh in Ghazni, Paltu in Katawaz, Kharwar and Machal-ghu in Kabul Province. A new canal will carry water from the Kabul River near Jalalabad, to irrigate a vast tract of land south and east of the city. By these measures it is hoped to increase the arable land in Afghanistan by 625,000 acres. Forestry plans in various districts will ensure better climatic conditions, prevent erosion and floods, and produce more timber. 5

The cost of the Agricultural Five-Year Plan to the nation will be: Afghanis For agriculture and irrigation 2,073,702,000 For the rearing of livestock .... 9,623,000 For the protection of livestock and plants against disease .... 51,617,000 (56 Afghanis = £1 Sterling, 20 Afghanis = $1.00) The above figures comprise 22·8% of the total Five Year Plan expenditure. The next important feature of the Plan is transportation. At present a network of roads encircles Afghanistan, but these are not all-weather highways; in fact, in certain areas the roads and bridges are sometimes washed away by seasonal floods. It is the Government's aim to improve the major routes to the east, north and south, so that these can easily take heavy traffic travelling into and out of the country. Furthermore, many workshops are to be installed in the main cities and along the highways, with sufficient provision for the repair of lorries and other vehicles. Within the scope of the Plan, the highways between Kabul and Torkham, Mazar-i-Sharif, and Kabul and Spinboldak will be substantially improved. They will be widened to 10 metres, and bridges will be built with a view to permanency. About 1,000 kilometres of these roads will be asphalted. To facilitate air travel between the capital and the various provinces, the existing airports will be improved and, where necessary, new airstrips will be constructed. This phase of the Plan includes the international airport of Kandahar, the Kabul airport—which will be capable of receiving all types of aircraft—and those of Jalalabad, Mazar-i-Sharif and Herat. The Afghan ports of Kizil Qala and Kilift, on the Amu river, will be modernised so as to be able to receive outgoing or incoming cargoes from the Soviet Union. The cost of this part of the Plan will be 1,444,522,000 Afghanis. Additional postal services, telephonic A bird's eye view of Kabul.

Wild tulips adorn the beautiful valleys between the mountains in northern Afghanistan. and telegraphic communications, as well as meteorological stations, will be set up to the tune of 488,738,000 Afghanis. In the educational field 160 new Primary Schools, 250 adult literacy courses, over 25 Secondary Schools, two Technical Colleges, and two University Faculties will be established within the prescribed period. To construct the new schools will cost 250,000,000 Afghanis; and the necessary laboratory equipment 10,000,000 dollars. A total of 318,800,000 Afghanis will be spent on educational progress in Afghanistan. Health plans will include the setting-up of many hospitals, dental clinics and laboratories in various districts. Main emphasis will be placed on preventive measures against disease. The sum allotted to this phase of the Plan is 92,970,000 Afghanis. Community development programmes will account for some 241,000,000 Afghanis. It is expected that some 2,220 villages out of a total of 24,000 will be covered by the present plans. These aim to make every village a self-supporting unit, giving it the most advanced knowledge possible of better education, health, sanitation, crops and farm life in general. Where needed the Government will furnish the basic equipment to farmers who will then carry out everything necessary to form useful, healthy and prosperous communities. For the exploitation of coal mines, oil-fields and other mineral beds, with a view to utilising the country's natural resources to the utmost, a sum of 242,439,000 Afghanis has been allotted to the Ministry of Mines and Industries. New factories will come into operation for the manufacture of textiles, cement, glass, and others, and an amount of 1,875,600,000 Afghanis has been set aside for this, while the total expenditure of the Plan amounts to 11,980,769,000 Afghanis. 7

PLANNING The Ministry of Planning is responsible for preparing and revising the development plans of the country and therefore has to collect data and formulate economic policy accordingly. The Department of Planning in the Ministry is co-ordinating the activities carried out by various Ministries. In the field of agriculture and irrigation the Department has collected the necessary data with the co-operation of the Ministry of Public Works and the Helmand and Arghandab Valleys Authority. In the fields of finance and banking, studies have been carried out in connection with the question of financing development projects and uniform charts prepared to determine the expenditure involved for each year of the Plan. As to the activities of various banks, new proposals have been made with a view to introducing new policies to boost their activities. The financial situation in general and the question of foreign exchange in particular, have been studied with relation to the economic development of the country. Useful reports have been obtained from the Ministry of Commerce, the Chambers of Commerce, the Law Courts for Commercial Disputes, and important trading companies. These reports throw light on Afghanistan's internal as well as her foreign trade. The Department's research on international economic conventions, international trade, commercial law, corporation by-laws, foreign investments and the tourist trade has been extensive and valuable. The research on the tourist trade, which is a recent development in Afghanistan, has been especially useful, and the Department has received many reports and suggestions from various tourist agencies. The Department has also made great progress in collecting data on transport and communications facilities, and in the field of mines and industries studies have been made on ways of encouraging foreign investment in order to develop certain natural resources. In the fields of social and cultural affairs the department has collected data on technical manpower and has assisted the community development project by suggesting effective ways of development. An example is the suggestion that co-educational schools should replace the boys' and girls' schools in small village communities. This has the effect of practically halving the number of teaching staff. The first such school was opened in Nooristan by the Community Development Project. The Department of Planning has helped the Kabul Municipality by suggesting better ways of improving the standard of hygiene in the city. It has also helped the Kabul Municipality by suggesting better ways of housing, water supply, and flood control. THE DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN CO-OPERATION Serving as a liaison between the Ministry of Planning and foreign agencies concerned with giving foreign aid and assistance, this Department is responsible for making arrangements for foreign experts to help on various projects, obtaining necessary equipment from abroad, and sending government officials abroad on fellowships to obtain further specialised training. The total amount of United Nations technical assistance to Afghanistan during the fourth year of the Plan ran into 660,778 dollars, of which 21,400 was spent on the purchase of equipment for various projects, the salaries of 64 experts and 11 scholarships. Besides this development assistance the United Nations helped Afghanistan through U.N.I.C.E.F. with the problems of maleria, typhus, and mother and child welfare. In accordance with a special agreement the United Nations Special Fund has agreed to allocate $1,257,400 to surveying land and water resources in Afghanistan. This was 8

of fellowships to Afghan candidates and provided a number of experts to work on agricultural statistics, mechanisation of farming, and pharmacology, meteorology and engineering. Further five French experts are engaged in studying radio-active material in Afghanistan. The Government of Japan has granted a number of fellowships in the fields of water supply, ceramics and sericulture and provided two experts to survey industries in Afghanistan. But an agreement for technical assistance with Japan has not been completed to date. EDUCATION CHANGES IN TEACHING PROGRAMMES: Primary Education: In order to vitalize and bring up to date the curricula in primary schools, the Ministry of Education has revised the programmes and special efforts have been made during the fourth year of the Plan to develop the talents of school children in various handicrafts so that they might become useful members of society in a practical way and add to the national economic progress. It was necessary to take into account the conditions and requirements of the local environment, and much attention was paid to the teaching of a particular handicraft in a particular school to meet the requirements of the people. Handicrafts such as carpentry, weaving, tailoring, carpet-making, lapidary, chalk-making, and furniture-making, were introduced by the Ministry of Education in 24 schools. Owing to the fact that agriculture plays the most important rôle in the life of the people throughout the country, the teaching of agriculture and horticulture was also introduced to a number of schools during the fourth year of the Plan. This will enable students to reinforce farming manpower, on the one hand, and familiarize their rural communities with modern techniques of farming on the other. The Ministry supplied the schools with farming implements, seeds, and audio-visual media. Further, two mobile cinema units belonging to the Ministry are always on the move to various parts of the country showing films on agriculture, public hygiene and community development in order to give both students and parents an idea of how to improve their ways of life. The supplementary books prepared by the Institute of Education have also proved very valuable in this respect. Inter-School and Community Relation-ship: The improving relationship between the school and students' parents has brought about great results. The participation of parents in school meet-ings and ceremonies has created a pleasant atmosphere in all schools with the result that some parents are volunteer-ing to bear the cost of the construction of an annex or to donate a considerable sum for the purchase of teaching material or a piece of land to build a new school on. Developing the Mental Capacity of Representatives of both men and women teachers with the Prime Minister. 10

Students for Better Living: All students in the elementary schools are given tips on social life and are shown around so that they may become familiar with different walks of life and so become prepared to face the realities of life and to choose the vocation they are most suited for at the appropriate age. New Basic Schools: During the fourth year of the Plan the Ministry of Education opened fifty basic schools in various provinces to prepare the children for secondary education. Village Schools: Where the population is scattered and it is not possible to run and maintain an elementary school, the Ministry has managed to keep education flowing by a network of village schools. During the fourth year of the Plan 108 village schools were opened. Graduates of such schools are able to join the fourth grades in elementary schools in more populated areas. Adult Education: To fight against illiteracy is one of the main objects of the Ministry of Education. Scores of adult education courses are run all over the country and the attendants are shown films and given a special magazine entitled "Read and Understand It." Ten thousand of these magazines are distributed and the demand is growing because of the 38 extra courses which were added during the fourth year of the Plan. Secondary Education: Secondary education made a number of considerable strides during the fourth year of the Plan, the most conspicuous of which was the transformation of a large number of elementary schools into secondary schools. The result achieved was so great that 130 per cent. more schools were transformed than originally intended. Two boarding schools were opened in Mazarisharif and Badakhshan provinces each accepting between 30 and 40 The First Deputy Premier, Mr. Ali Mohammed (front row) taking part in one of the conferences on Teachers' Day. graduates of village schools from the local areas. Change in the Programmes: The Ministry of Education made a number of changes in the text-books used in girls' high schools for biology with a view to furnishing them with more information on the practical aspects of the human organism. In order to meet the shortage of teachers for girls' schools steps were taken to employ the graduates of each particular school as teachers there and to provide them with more information on the subject-matter through courses taught by more experienced teachers. The employment of women in office work necessitated some thorough instruction in typing, accounting, and decorations which was taken care of by the Ministry through a number of courses in two girls' schools. To acquaint teachers in various boys' and girls' schools in the capital with laboratory work, the Ministry arranged a number of courses on practical physics where they could learn numerous modern methods of measurement and up-to-date scientific calculations during their vacations. Also, in order to meet the shortage of science teachers in the provinces the Ministry made arrangements with 11

A group of students expressing their appreciation during the Teachers' Day celebrations. experienced science teachers to spend their vacations at schools located in different provinces where the students have their vacations in a different time due to the difference in climate. During the fourth year of the Plan thirty-four per cent. more boys and twenty-seven per cent. more girls graduated from high schools throughout the country than the previous year. Of these a considerable number was selected for training in the teaching profession. The Department of Secondary Education also tackles the problem of Afghan students studying abroad by providing a special rate of exchange for their parents and going through their progress reports, which are sent to the Ministry regularly by their particular universities abroad. In order to encourage students in various arts and crafts, the Ministry holds an annual exhibition during the Independence Celebrations and a Fine Arts Display each Autumn. The exhibition arranged last year was one of the biggest in the whole country with 38 different educational institutions taking part. The Fine Arts Display consisted of 2,000 works of various students from boys and girls elementary, secondary and high schools out of which 72 students were awarded prizes in the nation-wide competition. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Changes in Teaching Programmes: A number of important changes have been made in the teaching material for religious schools, Kabul Teachers' College, and the schools for Agriculture and Commerce with a view to up-dating the method used so far. For instance, students of the religious schools were given instructions on science alongside with the usual subjects, and in the Kabul Teachers' College subjects such as fundamentals of education and educational sociology were introduced. The School of Agriculture was equipped with a modern laboratory and students were given more opportunity for experimental farming and physical exercise. Further, the School of Physical Education was raised to the level of a high school with more foreign instructors. And in the experimental schools much attention was paid to establishing close contacts with parents of the students in matters related to schooling. New Developments: During the fourth year of the Plan Art 12

Centres in the Kabul Teachers' Training College and the Teachers' Training Schools in the Provinces made great progress in connection with their teaching programmes and were provided with better boarding facilities. The Afghan Institute of Technology was equipped with a large workshop and a recreation hall. The Kabul Technical School started two new courses on the manufacture of various spare parts. The first batch of graduates of the new Technical Schools in Khost and Kandahar began their employment. The new Art School in Farah adopted the curriculum of Kabul Art School and sent out its first batch of graduates during the fourth year of the Plan. The Art School of Kabul added two new departments, weaving and an additional art subject. The teachers and equipment for these two new departments were provided by the West German Technical Assistance Board. Improvements in Workshops: Modern equipment was imported from Germany and installed in Kabul Technical School. Some was sent to the new Technical School in Khost in order to enable the students of that remote area to get training in boring, ironsmithy and carpentry. The new Technical School in Kandahar was equipped with modern machinery and teachers by U.N.E.S.C.O. Likewise, the I.C.A. provided some equipment for repairing motor vehicles and welding. Machinery imported from the United States by the Afghan Government was also installed at Kandahar Technical School. Training of Teachers: The Department of Vocational Education has been taking steps to deal with the problem of training enough qualified teachers. At present some graduates from various colleges of Kabul University go straight to high schools to teach their subject, as the number of graduates from the Teachers' Training College cannot keep pace with the demand for teachers. For the same reason the Students of the Agricultural School are shown a ploughing machine. Students of Kabul Technical School. Students of Agriculture experimenting with seed germination. 13

Ministry sends many graduates of Kabul University to Teachers' Training Colleges abroad, to get a more specialised training. Princess Bulkis' High School: In order to keep pace with the growing demand for women secretaries and office workers the Government opened the Princess Bulkis School where languages, social science, book-keeping, home economics, human relations, and geography are taught. The curriculum is revised every year to adapt to changing conditions. BASIC EDUCATION Training Courses: The Ministry of Education in co-operation with the Community Development Project trains a certain number of teachers specially to teach basic education in villages where the people have not had the opportunity to learn to read and write before as the schools in these areas are only for children. During the fourth year of the Plan 35 teachers graduated from this course, which was taken by local and foreign experts. Audio-Visual Course: The Audio-Visual course is attended by teachers from various schools in the city of Kabul. Graduates are supposed to teach in the new elementary schools being opened in various community centres. The Department of Basic Education has opened 75 elementary boys and girls schools along with a number of village schools, adult education courses and community centres, and distributed 18,198 magazines, text books, exercise books, charts and posters among the students. Four graduates of Kabul University have been employed to work with the officials of the Ministry of Education and teachers on the Community Development Project. Photography: Photographers of the Department of Basic Education have taken 1,095 pictures of towns, historic places, women's educational meetings, the Kabul Museum, factories, mechanical screws, and Teachers' Day. These pictures are displayed in various community centres to broaden the outlook of villagers. Films: The mobile cinema unit which is always moving from province to province has shown 300 educational and agricultural films, in various boys and girls' schools. These films have been seen by 277,710 students, students' parents and villagers. Educational Supplies: In order to cope with the increasing demand for educational supplies the Ministry of Education has opened a supplying centre which works to organise the supply of audio-visual and other educational equipment. This centre also supplies the Department of Basic Education with material for its campaign against illiteracy and its Safety First programme. Solar Projectors: In order to avoid the expenses involved in showing educational films to the villagers through battery-operated projectors, the Department of Basic Education in co-operation with a number of local experts introduced solar projectors in various community centres. Most of the equipment is manufactured in Afghanistan but the Department has to import certain parts from abroad. There are now 250 of these solar projectors in use. The Department of Basic Education has prepared a number of film strips about Kabul Museum, documentaries on different parts of Afghanistan, films on scientific experiments and stories from Afghan folk-lore. Of the 500 films which the Department of Basic Education made during the fourth year of the Plan, 250 have their sound-track in Persian and 250 in Pakhto. These films are sent to schools where electricity is not available. Adult Education Course: The object of the campaign against illiteracy in the present changing world is not only to teach the people to read and write but also to educate them as good citizens. Therefore the Department of 14

Basic Education is planning to open a number of vocational courses, first in the capital and then in the provinces, so that the people can learn various arts and crafts and become more useful members of society. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PUBLICATIONS The Department of Educational Publications has prepared, during the fourth year of the Plan, 120 different text books for elementary, secondary and high schools. The total circulation of these text-books runs into 3,000,000. This department has issued special text books to teach Persian to those living in the Pakhto-speaking areas of Afghanistan and Pakhto to those living in areas where chiefly Persian is spoken. The Department has also published two books on Pakhto literature and composition to help Persian-speaking students to master the language. Another important task of the Department of Educational Publications is that of translating and adapting foreign textbooks on various subjects for Afghanistan. It has prepared 135 different foreign text-books during the fourth year of the Plan. Of these 35 are to be printed in Kabul and the rest in Teheran. The Department has also taken a number of steps to publish a large number of supplementary and reference books, most of which are translations from foreign languages. As the printing facilities of the Ministry of Education are limited the Department of Educational Publications has managed to print seven school text-books by Gestetner. In order to keep all those concerned with education up-to-date the Department of Educational Publications publishes a monthly magazine called " Irfan," which reflects changes in the philosophy of education, illustrates Afghanistan's culture and social heritage and eminent educationalists and their views on various educational subjects. A similar magazine Reading Room in Kabul Public Library. is run in Pakhto language quarterly. A second purpose of this magazine, " Pohana," is to give information about Pakhto literature to Persian-speaking teachers. KABUL PUBLIC LIBRARY During the fourth year of the Plan Kabul Public Library was supplied with reading lights, equipment for the auditorium, more magazines for the display hall and up-to-date catalogues. Weekly symposiums in which high school boys and girls take part and express their views on various subjects were started during the fourth year of the Plan. The library also runs a fortnightly publication which keeps the people informed about various educational activities throughout the country. Last but not least was the opening of a separate reference library to help undergraduates with their research in specialised fields. FOREIGN RELATIONS The Department of Foreign Relations in the Ministry of Education is a liaison office which links the Ministry with various organisations abroad. It is constantly in contact with U.N.E.S.C.O. and thus keeps the Ministry informed of new developments in education in the world; it also arranges to buy text-books and equipment from abroad. During the fourth year of the Plan two U.N.E.S.C.O. experts came to Kabul to study the present and future programmes in Afghanistan and exchange views with the authorities. U.N.E.S.C.O. also provided three experts 15

The Kabul Public Library is increasingly becoming a centre of attraction for the youth of the city. Group discussions are arranged during which girls and boys from various schools can express their views on diverse subjects. The photo shows the audience during one of these discussions. for Kandahar technical school; the chief of the U.N.E.S.C.O. mission in Afghanistan worked as an advisor to elementary and secondary schools in the country and two U.N.E.S.C.O. experts continued their services with the Educational Press and Art School. Likewise U.N.E.S.C.O. sent three experts to Kabul to work in Kabul Museum for a short period and arranged for the display of Afghan school text-books in New Zealand. During the fourth year of the Plan the department made arrangements for various representatives of the Ministry of Education to take part in various international conferences and meetings. The Seminar on Compulsory Elementary Education: This seminar was arranged by U.N.E.S.C.O. in Karachi. Dr. Rawan Ferhadi represented Afghanistan. The Seminar finally decided that provided the disarmament question was resolved $80 billion should be spent on the education of qualified teachers for elementary schools. Seminar on the Twentieth Conference on Education: Afghanistan was represented at this conference by Dr. Mohammed Haider, and Dr. Mohammed Akram. The agenda consisted of the preparation, selection and utilization of text-books in elementary schools, training of personnel, and progress of education and meetings for administrative personnel. Vocational Education: Co-sponsored by the International Labour Organisation and the National U.N.E.S.C.O. Commission of Japan for S.E. Asia countries, the seminar took place in Tokyo. Afghanistan was represented by Mr. Mohammed Nasim, who was elected Chairman of the seminar. The seminar discussed the relationship between vocational and technical education, the demand for skilled workers with special reference to the development of the country, the revision of educational programmes, technical and vocational guidance, selection of students and their vocational guidance, equipment and 16

and activities of national commissions, the effect of industrialisation in social life, elementary education in Asia, under- standing and appreciation of East/West cultural values, and recommendations for the U.N.E.S.C.O. future programmes. Afghanistan was represented at this conference by Mr. Toryalay Itemadi. Afghan Educational Delegation in America: Upon the invitation of the United States Information Service a group of six educational and editorial staff of the Ministry of Education visited various states where they inspected educational facilities for six weeks. Afghan Cultural Delegation to Iraq: A group of four university professors and writers visited cultural and educa- tional institutes in Iraq at the invitation of the Iraqi Government in May, 1960. Afghan Education Delegation to the Soviet Union: In May, 1960, a delegation led by Dr. Popal, Minister of Education, visited various educational, scientific and cultural institutes in the Soviet Union. Members of the delegation were two important officials of the Ministry of Education and the Dean of the Faculty of Science of Kabul University. Scholarships and Fellowships: Another important task of the Depart- ment of Foreign Relations is to make arrangements for Afghans to go abroad and study on scholarships and fellowships awarded by United Nations Specialised Agencies and a few countries with which Afghanistan has signed agreements on exchange of students. During the fourth year of the Plan many more students were sent abroad on scholarships and fellow- ships and twelve foreign scholars were given facilities for research in Afghanistan by the Department of Foreign Relations. HISTORICAL SOCIETY Although a large number of books prepared by the Afghan Historical Society Students of Kabul Technical School working on new tools. supplies for vocational and technical schools, international exchange of teachers and students, and the future development of vocational and technical education. The First International Congress of Turkish and Islamic Art: Sponsored by the Ankara University, congress was convened in October, 1959. Dr. Mohammed Anas represented Afghanistan. Two lectures were given at the congress, one by Prof. Tochi of Italy on Afghan Art during the Ghaznavid era: and the second by Dr. Mohammed Anas on Maulana Jalaluddin and his rôle in Islamic countries. The material published about the Ja'am Minaret and art during the Ghaznavid era attracted the attention of well known historians of art who were attending the congress. Seminar on East/West Understanding: During its 10th International Confer- ence U.N.E.S.C.O. decided that an Inter- national Seminar should be arranged in New Zealand in 1960. This seminar was attended by 27 member states and several international organisations and discussed ways and means of bringing East and West closer together in order to avoid misunderstandings which tend to result in war. Afghanistan was represented in this seminar by Mr. Gholam Ali Ayeen. The Second U.N.E.S.C.O. Regional Conference: Co-sponsored by the national U.N.E.S.C.O. Commission of the Philip- pine Government and U.N.E.S.C.O., this conference was convened in January, 1960, for the countries of the South/East Asia region with observers from the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France and the Netherlands. The conference discussed the structure, duties 17

were destroyed in a huge fire which broke out in the Government Printing Press, the Society took a number of steps to get those valuable works rewritten. One of these books, the second volume of the Afghan History, was rewritten and published in Pakhto. Other publications of the Historical Society were "The Spread of Islam in Afghanistan," the second volume of "Kabul Citadel," "The Mausoleums in Kabul," "The Descendants of Chengez," and "The Documents of Shah Shuja Period." DEPARTMENT OF MUSEUMS The Department of Museums classified and catalogued 3,000 items uncovered in Mundigak and took steps in connection with the preservation of costumes collected at the Ethnography Section. Five hundred display cards were printed describing the Bagram finds. In order to improve the display of ancient coins the Department of Museums imported a large number of special covers in which to display the coins in sections. To enhance the co-operation between the Central Museum and museums in the provinces all provincial museums formerly functioning under local municipalities were brought under the Department of Museums and many steps have been taken to rearrange their displays and bring up-to-date their organisation. The Department of Museums in co-operation with the French Archæological Expedition, uncovered the Eastern base of the great Surkh Kotal Temple and found nine inscriptions in one place and forty-four in another. In Ghazni the Department succeeded in finding forty-two inscriptions on decorated marble bringing the total number to seventy-three. Most of these inscriptions bear either the name of Mahmood, the great Ghaznavid Emperor, or that of his son Masuod. In a place between Ghazni and Rouza the Italian Archæological Expedition has found a number of very Kabul Museum is often visited by groups of students from various schools. important stopas which they believe to be the greatest in the whole country. Accidental Finds: At Chardara, Kunduz, 176 different coins belonging to the Ghaznavid and Saljukid periods were found. These coins throw much light upon the reigns of different kings as far as the dates of their rise and fall is concerned. The second accidental find was a stone axe uncovered at Daranoor, Nangarhar Province. The third was a scene from a Buddhist ceremony engraved on stone showing a number of Buddhists presenting their offerings to Buddha. Their mode of dress represents the local dress of the Koshanid period. This stone was uncovered in Kalakan, Kohdaman. The Department of Museums has rearranged the collection of old manuscripts in a separate section and is planning to purchase all the publications about Afghanistan for reference purposes. So far 3,000 such publications have been bought and it is expected that the remaining books and pamphlets will reach the museum in due course. U.N.E.S.C.O. is expected to send three experts to help Kabul Museum with the arrangement of coins and manuscripts. The Asia Foundation awarded two scholarships to the Department to send two of its officials to Switzerland to learn decoration and display techniques. Likewise the Asia Foundation has made arrangements for cataloguing all items in Kabul Museum and sending abroad three more officials to study techniques for mending old manuscripts. 18

This unusual picture of a flower vendor was achieved by an Afghan student at the Teachers' Training College, using the melted wax drops of different coloured burning candles. 19

Sculpture is progressing in the Fine Arts School. News of the day and of the world is posted on the school bulletin board. One of the experimental courses run from time to time by the Institute of Education. 20

KABUL UNIVERSITY Scale Model of the new Kabul University Campus. One of the most remarkable activities of Kabul University during the fourth year of the Plan was the construction of new university buildings at Aliabad, Kabul, the foundation stone of which was laid by Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud on June 5th, 1960. The building site was surveyed under special contract by American Pacific Architects and the building plan was prepared by the firm and checked by the Ministry of Public Works with a consequent contract which was signed between the Ministry and the German construction firm, Hotchief A.G. The campus would consist of a gymnasium, a central library with a capacity for 50,000 books, a dormitory for 800 students and buildings for the Chancellory and the Faculties of Engineering, Agriculture, Science and Social Science. Further, a contract was signed between the Ministry of Public Works and the Hochtief Company for the construction of a gymnasium bringing the total cost of the buildings to $6,958,645, of which the equivalent of 160,000 Afghanis will be provided by the government and the remainder by the I.C.A. Likewise, the cost of the gymnasium ($197,576) will be paid for partly by the Government and partly by the Asia Foundation. The University campus is scheduled to be completed within 1,000 days of commencement and the gymnasium will take one year. Kabul University has made considerable progress in the reorganisation of its administration for great efficiency, adopting a new system of promotion for Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud signing the memorial document for the new buildings of Kabul University. The foundation stone of the new campus was laid by him on June 5th. 21

teaching staff and providing more teachers for additional subjects. The following table shows the increase in the number of students in various faculties of Kabul University: Name of Faculty 1958-59 1960-61 Medicine and Pharmacology 357 361 Law ... ... ... 309 246 Science ... ... 322 298 Literature ... ... 172 165 Engineering and Agriculture 86 146 Theology ... ... 96 79 Economics ... ... 81 120 Medicine (Women) ... 58 73 Literature (Women) ... 33 58 Science (Women) ... 50 22 During the fourth year of the Plan 206 young men graduated from various Faculties and were employed in various organisations. The Faculty of Engineering and Agriculture sent out its very first batch of graduates this year. The following table shows the number of graduates of various faculties: Name of Faculty Number of Graduates Medicine ... ... 32 Law ... ... ... 57 Science ... ... 24 Theology ... ... 24 Economics ... ... 27 Engineering and Agriculture... 13 A few Faculties adopted the American system of semesters and credits. This system will eventually be adopted by all Faculties. The University provides board and lodging for 486 students whose families do not live near the University. The University has started two periodicals, the Kabul University News which is a monthly, and a magazine on physical education. The libraries of the Faculties of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, and Literature and of the Institute of Education have been reorganised and books have been catalogued according to up-to-date methods. The Department of Foreign Relations of Kabul University is concerned with sending students abroad for specialised studies. During the fourth year of the Plan this department has sent 57 young men to the U.A.R., West Germany, Britain, France, Switzerland, the Soviet Union, the United States and Belgium to study education, atomic physics, organic chemistry, engineering, economics, medicine, motor repairs, physical education, wireless telephony, agriculture and mathematics. The Department of Foreign Relations also made arrangements for a number of Chinese students to study Pakhto and Persian Literature, a German scholar to make observations in the field of archaeology, and two Japanese students to study the Pakhto language on Kabul University Scholarships. Twenty-two young Afghans obtained their doctorate or M.A. from universities of various foreign countries where they had studied. In order to meet the growing demand for educational material, Kabul University has opened a supply centre with departments for compilation, graphic arts, audio-visual media and photography. 30,082,405 Afghanis were spent during the last financial year on the completion of laboratories, libraries and buildings for various faculties. In order to keep the teaching staff up-to-date the University has continued to send a number of teachers from various faculties to study in well-known universities in Europe and America. The curriculum of each faculty is revised every year with a view to giving students more up-to-date information on various subjects and the number of local professors has increased accordingly. The Women's Faculty of Medicine has 61 students at present and the School of Nursing (men) and the School of Nursing (women) have both made considerable progress. There is still a shortage of local teachers. The editorial board of the medical journal published by the Faculty of 22

different pills and is experimenting on 40 others. The Faculty of Science has arranged two courses for school teachers to provide them with more information on physics and chemistry and opened a new depart- ment on meteorology. The faculty is also conducting research on fauna and flora in Afghanistan under the supervision of a French professor. The latest development in the Faculty of Science has been the establishment of the Afghan Atomic Energy Commission to study the necessity for education on atomic energy and the possibilities of utilising atomic energy for industry and agriculture. This commission is entrusted with the task of making recommendations to the government on matters relating to Mr. Mohammed Asghar. Chancellor of Kabul University, cutting the ribbon to open the capital's tablet-making laboratory. Medicine has printed ten papers written by various professors. The blood bank sponsored by the Faculty of Medicine has collected and donated more blood during the fourth year of the Plan and many benefactors have made donations to the bank. The Aliabad 500-bed hospital has been equipped with up-to-date equipment. During the first part of the fourth year of the Plan, 6,014 people were hospitalised and treated. 3,600 were operated upon and 7,150 ccs. of blood were transfused. The 200-bed women's hospital was also supplied with modern equipment. The general clinics of Kabul University treated 255,882 men and women, hos- pitalised 7,402 people and supplied 18,036 patients with medicine during the first part of the fourth year. The most important step taken in the field of pharmacology has been the importation and installation of equipment for a complete pharmaceutical plant which supplies all the hospitals in the country thus saving a lot of foreign exchange. The plant has so far manufactured 26 Students of the fourth grade of the Faculty of Medicine in their class room. The Faculty of Science has a modern building equipped with all facilities. 23

Students of the Faculty of Engineering during practical field surveying. atomic energy and its development. According to the request of the Commission the International Atomic Energy Agency has agreed to grant a number of scholarships to Afghan scholars to study new techniques in the field of atomic energy. The Agency also sent a commission to Afghanistan to survey the possibility of utilising atomic energy in the country. Consequently the Agency agreed to send an atomic energy expert with the necessary equipment to Kabul to establish an atomic energy laboratory in the Faculty of Science. The Chairman of the Afghan Atomic Energy Commission, Dr. Kakar, who is also the Dean of the Faculty of Science took part in the third general conference of the International Atomic Energy Agency which was convened in Vienna in 1959. Institute of Education The Institute of Education has been very active during the fourth year of the Plan and has revised a great number of text books for the seventh, eighth and ninth grades of Ibnisina school, guiding the teachers of social subjects in ways of using local material, arranging a social science laboratory and inviting a number of important people to give lectures in their own fields. The Institute has compiled history and geography text books and arranged a social science laboratory for the Teachers' Training College. It has also supplied the text for social studies in the Faculty of Literature. The Institute has arranged winter courses for men and women teachers and helped all teachers in Kabul schools by way of personal contacts and provision of new teaching material. Winter courses are attended annually by men and women teachers from all over the country and local educational meetings are arranged in provincial centres with representatives of the Ministry of Education taking part. The English Department of the Institute of Education has sent out its The Institute of Education has a well stocked library. first batch of graduates and co-operated with English teachers—in Ibnisina School, Teachers Training College, Habibia College and Rabia Balkhi School. The Department has also provided instructors for the Post Graduate Course, and 17 courses were arranged for men and women teachers. The Department has compiled the second and third volumes of "English for the Afghans." The Institute of Education in co-operation with the Boy Scout Association arranged courses on Scouting. The Department of Publications has published 24

99 different books in English, Persian and Pakhto on various subjects to help teachers and students throughout the country. The Library of the Institute of Education contains 6,000 books in English, Pakhto, Persian and Arabic. These books deal chiefly with the latest methods of education. Last, but not the least, is the establish- ment of the Post Graduate Course which has been attended by the graduates of the Faculties of Science and Literature. This course takes two years, and subjects taught include secondary education, present-day Afghanistan, fundamentals of teaching, essentials of teaching, science in the modern world, English, progressive methods of teaching, teaching and evalua- tion, Islamic culture and education and educational requirements of the present- day world. The Chancellor of Kabul University (first row, extreme left) at the opening of winter courses in the Institute of Education. The Grand Mosque of Herat which has been restored under royal patronage by local craftsmen. 25

AGRICULTURE Prime Minister Sardar Moham-med Daoud in-specting the rams belonging to the Animal Husbandry Development Organisation in Kataghan. During the fourth year of the Plan the Ministry of Agriculture has taken many steps to increase the agricultural output of the country by bringing farming equip-ment up to date and using new methods to protect crops and livestock against disease. The Ministry has also imported a great variety of new and more produc-tive seed strains. Teams from the Ministry of Agriculture travelled all over the country demonstrating new and more productive methods to farmers, using film strips and practical demonstration. The experimental farms in Kabul and throughout the country were greatly extended. Hybrid seedlings which had been developed on experimental farms were sold to the general public at a cheap rate in order to encourage them to use these superior plants. The services of additional foreign experts were valuable on experiments to improve horticulture, agriculture, poultry farming, dairy farm-ing, animal and plant preservation. Besides the F.A.O. and I.C.A. technicians who have been working on various projects, a forestry delegation of the People's Republic of China visited various natural forests in the country and presented a report to the Ministry which included suggestions for the preservation and extension of the existing one million hectares of forest in Afghanistan. The Department of Legislation: The Ministry of Agriculture has during the fourth year of the Plan introduced some forms of legislation to help improve farming conditions. Six Bills to deal with the organisation and regulation of farmers' meetings, land lease, irrigation, and farm hands, were prepared for the purpose of legislation. Five more projects 26

are under consideration for forestry, plantations, horticulture, veterinary and quarantine. The Bills and projects will become law after they have been approved by the Council of Ministers and ratified in both Houses of Parliament. The Department of Plant Preservation: The Department of Plant Preservation took a number of important steps to protect crops against various insects which cause considerable damage. Scores of combat squads were sent to various provinces to observe the symptoms of plant diseases and collect the insects for laboratory experiments. These insects were preserved in the growing collection of the Department, which means, of course, that most research can now be done on the spot. The Department carried out a number of experiments on local and Indian strains of sugarcane and discovered that the Indian variety had been more resistant to cold and yielded double that of the local sugarcane. The Ministry has now imported a certain amount of Indian sugarcane and distributed it among some farmers in Nangarhar Province. Results have been very encouraging according to laboratory of the Sugar Refinery in Jalalabad. The combat squads of the Department sprayed apple orchards in Karizmir against a certain disease caused by an insect. This greatly improved the condi- tion of the crop. The vineyards in Kohdaman were sprayed against disease and 71,744 vine trees were protected. In Maimana 1,400 kilos of insecticide were used to make the wheat grain immune to a disease which causes shrinkage. The laboratory of the Department of Plant Preservation carried out a number of experiments on rice and maize seeds which were sent by the International Organisation for Cereal Seeds and experi- ments on various bacteria were carried out in order to develop methods of protection against them. The Department also arranged a course given by an F.A.O. expert on ways and means of diagnosing plant disease for the staff of various laboratories. Of the 142 strains of wheat sent to the Ministry by the F.A.O. a few yielded satisfactory results. These were reculti- vated for the purpose of distribution among enterprising farmers. These strains have proved more resistant to diseases and more adaptable to local environment. The Department of Production: The Department of Agriculture Produc- tion is running and supervising a number of experimental farms to introduce better strains of plant and new methods of farming and horticulture. At Aliabad farm, thousands of fruit seedlings were planted during the fourth year of the Plan and those which had been planted already were grafted and pruned. The area of these farms was extended by 53 acres and the additional land was used for nurseries. At Guzerga experimental farm the area was extended by four acres and hundreds of fruit and decorative plants were grafted and pruned according to modern methods. At Chamean Hozori where the Independence Celebrations are held in August various flowers and fruit seedlings were put by the roadsides and in beds. At Gulbagh old poplar trees were replaced by various fruit seedlings and mulberry seedlings were planted over three acres for grafting purposes. In Bagh Bland more foreign strains were experimented with, and the total number of plants, including fruit and decorative bushes ran into 15,613, and 30,000 vine seedlings were planted for grafting pur- poses. Graft segments from 18 varieties of apricot and cherry trees were imported from North America for 160 seedlings and when these bear fruit the seeds will be sown again. The result of grafting these varieties with local trees has been remark- able as they are very resistant to cold and drought. Likewise, decorative seedlings were imported from India for experiments in Nangarhar and eight strains of sugar- 27

beet from Czechoslovakia for Baghlan. These strains are more suitable for local farming conditions and yield a higher percentage of sugar. The Department of Animal Husbandry: The Department of Animal Husbandry is chiefly concerned with the manufacture of various vaccines against animal diseases, the running and supervision of laboratories for artificial insemination, poultry breeding, and the veterinary school. During the fourth year of the Plan the Department has managed to manufacture vaccines against eight different diseases. Altogether the amount of vaccine manufactured was sufficient to inoculate 1,082,850 animals. 663,479 different animals throughout the country were inoculated against nine different diseases by 30 combat squads. The combat squads distributed 239,116 pills for a typical sheep disease and 50,538 pills against another prevalent disease generally contracted by sheep. The animal husbandry clinics treated, during the fourth year of the Plan, 1,077 animals in the capital and managed to install equipment for the clinics in Katagan, Kandahar, Mazarisharif and Nangarhar Provinces. The laboratory for artificial insemination has been making great progress, with a branch which functions in Jalalabad during the winter and a new permanent clinic in Kataghan. The Department of Animal Husbandry is planning to open more of these laboratories in all important centres in order to produce better animal strains throughout the country. The poultry farm in Bini Hissar has been completed and provided with 3,600 chicks and 600 Chinese ducklings. The farm is planning to gather the eggs for distribution among interested farmers. The poultry farm in Kabul has distributed thousands of eggs among farmers to increase the imported strains of chickens and ducks in the country. The new veterinary school sent out its first batch of 25 graduates this year to work in various veterinary centres in the country. The school has three classes and 106 students at present. A breeding centre in Nangarhar Province was opened this year and 42 cows and bulls of a better strain were imported from India for breeding purposes. The sheep breeding centre in Kandahar distributed a large number of an improved strain of Merino and local sheep among farmers. The Department of Agricultural Extension: The Department of Extension opened a course for its 18 extension staff and relevant subjects were taught by foreign experts working with the Ministry of Agriculture. The students joined a number of farmers after their graduation to work with them in the wheat fields where they introduced a better strain of wheat in the suburbs of Kabul. They also persuaded the farmers to cultivate a certain American strain of clover, called Buffalo, and a few strains of American maize. Nine of the graduates were posted in five locations in Kabul Province and elsewhere, to run extension centres in their areas. These extension offices showed a number of agricultural films to the farmers, demonstrated spraying in fields and vineyards, and convinced farmers about the practical methods of modern farming. Their efforts resulted in a great demand on the part of the farmers for artificial manure and spraying material and equipment which were provided in co-operation with the Agricultural Bank, at reasonable rates. The extension officers made a considerable effort in their campaign against vine disease. In Kabul Province and Kohdaman they sprayed 14,505,930 vine trees. In various places in Kohdaman they sprayed fruit trees with sulphur and other insecticides and in Paghman they made 3,000 kilometres of arable land immune against rats. These officers supervised the reaping of clover, wheat and maize which had been grown by farmers from seeds supplied for experimental purposes. 28

Another extension course was opened at the Ministry to provide the officials concerned with more up-to-date information on the cultivation of wheat, maize and clover and better ways of using artificial manure. Four additional extension officers were posted in four locations in Logar where they cultivated a strain of American wheat and used artificial fertilisers in five fields. The result of this cultivation in Logar and other parts of the country where the extension officers have been working has been satisfactory and more seeds were distributed among farmers to experiment with. In Chilsutoon, a hybrid American maize was introduced by demonstration teams consisting of the F.A.O. experts, technicians of the Wyoming University and those of the I.C.A. and students of the School of Agriculture. The result of this has been very encouraging. The Department of Extension has opened new bee-keeping centres in Kohdaman, Parwan and Maidan and equipped each centre with hives supervised by specialists. These specialists have managed to attract wild bees to the hives and collect honey. A number of bee-keeping technicians and students have been sent to Ahingaran to start bee-keeping in this village, which provides ideal conditions. The Department of Extension has made remarkable progress in sericulture by means of increasing the production of silk cocoons in three different breeding centres, namely, Tapatajbeg, Paghman and Gulbahar. Gift boxes of cocoons have been distributed among farmers in Panjsher and Salang. Demonstrations were given by the F.A.O. experts to encourage sericulture in those areas. The Department of Extension also provided the Community Development Project and the Sericulture Institute of Baghlan with a considerable amount of new hybrid cocoons for experimental purposes. The sericulture centres in Najarkhana, Darulaman, Gulbahar and Abdulkhel extended their mulberry plantation to feed more silkworms and building plans for the new centres have been prepared and money allocated to provide better facilities for breeding better silkworms and 51 new students have been recruited from Badakhshan and other parts of the country to study sericulture. The Prime Minister looking through a microscope at the plant insects at Baghlan Agricultural Laboratory.

The quarterly magazine called "Karhana" has been changed to a monthly and every effort has been made to make the content easily assimilated by farmers and all sorts of illustrations have been used to make agricultural improve ment understandable to the people. Radio programmes were arranged once a week to keep the farmers all over the country informed about up-to-date methods of farming and writers were encouraged to improve their scripts by the offer of three different prizes. THE DEPARTMENT OF SOIL AND WATER This department is chiefly concerned with the constant supply of water and the conservation of soil. During the fourth year of the Plan the Department repaired and improved the Ajmir Canal in Kataghan Province to keep irrigation water flowing for the sugarbeet fields in Baghlan and other adjoining areas in co-operation with the F.A.O. experts. The Department also repaired and improved the Archi Canal which irrigates thousands of acres of fertile land in Kataghan and surveyed the area for the building of another canal in Alchin which would irrigate 7,000 additional acres by means of a pumping station. Efforts have been made to re-dig the old canals destroyed in Nangarhar Province for the purpose of irrigating vast areas of fallow land. Hundreds of small pumping stations are to be distributed soon among farmers in Katawaz and Ghazni where the scarcity of water is acutely felt and irrigation water has to be obtained from deep wells. The Department has also made con siderable progress in connection with the analysis of various samples of soil from various parts of the country. For example, the experts of the Department have collected 400 samples of various soils from Kataghan Province, 16 from Badakhshan, 118 from Karabagh, 120 from Nangarhar and 100 from private farms in various places at the owners' request. The Arch of Bist in Girishk

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT The Community Development Project was launched in August, 1954 covering only two villages but in September, 1959 the Five Year Development Plan envisaged 15 units for the project, which included 1,050 villages at a cost of 170,330,000 Afghanis. In December, 1955 the Community Development Project had 81 villages in Shiwaki and in May, 1956 community development activities were extended to Logar to cover the upper part of Logar valley. In 1959 a new project was started in Jabulseraj and the project in Logar was split into two units. The Community Development Project is running training courses for a number of young men to organise the management of various community centres. The course arranged in Gulzar sent out 30 graduates during the fourth year of the Plan and the following course is planned for 50 people to get one year's training in management. The students for these courses are selected from various community centres and after their graduation they return to their original centre as superintendents. A four-week refresher course was arranged for 45 community superintendents with satisfactory results. The length of leadership courses was extended from three weeks to eleven weeks. In co-operation with the Ministry of Education the Community Development Project arranged that teachers from the eleventh grade of the Teachers' Training College should attend these leadership courses so that they will be better equipped for their careers as community centre teachers. To date 250 students have graduated from the above mentioned courses and the audio-visual basic education courses. A one-year course on industrial co-operation was started in April, 1959 with eleven students who had graduated from high school. These students will be employed after their graduation in the industrial co-operatives of the community centres. In December, 1959 the experts of the community development project arranged a course on the principles and management of community centres for the staff of various units. This course has been so popular that the staff have asked that the course should be extended from two to four weeks. A similar course was arranged for the heads of various community centres and maintenance staff and inspectors in March, 1960. Much attention was paid to questions such as surveying of projects, planning, community organisation and their rôle in the development of villages. The Community Development Project is arranging intensive courses for their medical staff and also provides the opportunity for the graduates of the faculty of medicine to watch qualified medical staff at work. Graduates from the one-month course qualified for midwives and the one and a half year course to train midwives' assistants were sent out during the fourth year of the Plan. Likewise close contact was established with the sanitarian school and students were received in the clinics of the community development project to watch work in process. The construction work on the Gulzar unit was accelerated in April, 1959 to provide facilities for training courses and offices. The building will cost 10,000,000 Afghanis, will accommodate 250 people with a hall, an open air theatre and a display room. A 35 acre experimental farm, and model poultry and dairy farms have been planned. Steps have been taken to substitute foreign experts by local teachers. The Community Development Project has paid a considerable amount of attention to agricultural activities such as arranging demonstrations of improved farming implements and introducing new 31

A batch of newly-graduated assistant midwives. methods of cultivation. Campaigns against plant and animal diseases were intensified and sericulture started to boost the economy of villages. To help the local farmers the project experts of each unit treated corn seed with insecticide, distributed imported strains of various crops among farmers, planted and pruned trees in accordance with new methods of horticulture and distributed silk cocoons among interested villagers. 60,000 seedlings were planted in Gulzar unit, of which 20,000 were later redistributed to other units. The Community Development Project is equipped with one central clinic, four unit clinics and a mobile clinic unit which tours remote villages. Mother and child welfare has been given much consideration and most expectant mothers are hospitalised and mothers are provided with special coupons for milk and vitamins for the babies. To provide hygenic drinking water the project has arranged for 48 deep wells to be sunk in Shaiwaki and a spring in Kishlak village was converted into a water reservoir. The villagers have been shown new methods of building sanitary water closets and the existing lavatories have been greatly improved. In order to equip villages with craftsmen the community project opened a carpentry workshop in Shaiwaki in April, 1958. The workshop sent out 8 graduates in 1960 and 12 new students from Nooristan and Shaiwaki were admitted in April, 1960. Leatherwork was also given priority and in 1958 a leather workshop was planned in Charikar with equipment costing $8,000. This has now been completed. So far 34 elementary schools for boys and 13 elementary schools for girls have been opened in various community centres and 16 adult education courses arranged. Various recreation centres have been opened in villages where people can have tea, listen to music and play indoor games. The community domestic and welfare course for girls sent out 43 graduates to help village women to better housewives, mothers and citizens. Handicrafts, cookery, home economy, child care, simple arithmetic, knitting, dressmaking, embroidery and composition, form part of the course. In June, 1959 a similar course was opened in the first unit of Logar project with 12 students. The Community Development project is at present equipped with six kindergartens which are a novelty to villagers and have proved highly popular. One of the main problems of the community development project has been the question of housing. This question has been attacked on all sides and the blueprints of an ideal community centre have been prepared. The plan includes a mosque, market place, school, houses and playing grounds. Steps have also been taken to avoid the undesirable effect brought about by citizens building independent houses which have not been approved by the planning authorities. Shaiwaki has been selected as the site 32

for the building of this first ideal community centre and the first houses have already been constructed, in co-operation with the government, which has provided part of the funds on loan. The villagers themselves are very active in community work and have taken part in the building work, made generous donations to the value of over 901,954 Afghanis and generally assisted the community development project. Community centre councils to aquaint local elders with the objectives of community development are being encouraged. The first of these councils, which was opened in January, 1960, in Sayedkhel has proved very popular. The United Nations and its specialised agencies such as the I.L.O., F.A.O., W.H.O., U.N.E.S.C.O. and U.N.I.C.E.F. have assisted the Community Development Project in many ways. The United Nations Technical Assistance Board in Afghanistan has provided $15,000 worth of foreign implements and books and another $15,000 will be allocated soon. It has also arranged foreign tours for officials of the Project and granted fellowships for members of the staff to study abroad. One of these tours has been co-sponsored by the Asia Foundation. The U.N.I.C.E.F. has provided $55,000 to help supply preventive and curative medicine, as well as providing soap, vitamins, condensed milk, and $92,000 have been allocated in the 1960-61 budget for various units. The I.L.O. provided $8,000 for the purchase and installation of leather works machinery. The Asia Foundation has also played an important part in furthering the aims and objectives of the community development project by providing $38,600 and 306,897 Afghanis. A village scene in Nooristan. 33

MINES AND INDUSTRIES His Majesty the King formally opening the Gul- bahar Textile Mills. The Minister of Mines and Industries and the President of the Textile Company are seen on either side of His Majesty. The Ministry of Mines and Industries, which is entrusted with the task of organising Afghanistan's industry and mineral resources, has made considerable progress during the fourth year of the Plan. The Plan aims at establishing an equilibrium between the economic structure of the country and the produc- tion of consumer goods in order to pave the way for economic progress in the future and to raise the immediate standard of living of the people without importing a heavy amount of foreign goods. To achieve this the Government has invested heavily in basic industries such as petroleum, coal, electricity and cement while free enterprise was given the opportunity to make investments in con- sumer goods such as textiles, porcelain, and so on. Sometimes when the need arises, both Government and private capital is utilised to start a new industry, but generally private capital is put into short term enterprise. THE DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES The Departmen of Industries works as a liaison between the Government and various industries in connection with Government investment and is also con- cerned with the protection of private industries by providing them with low rates of exchange, exemption from customs duty on their imports of machinery, building materials and raw materials, granting credits and arranging special training courses. Further, the project Bill for mines and petroleum which was presented to the Parliament should prepare the ground for more Government, private and foreign invest- ment in mines and petroleum. The Gulbahar Textile Mills, which con- tain 43,000 spindles, 1,200 automatic 34

weaving machines and departments for controlling temperature, humidity, etc., was opened by His Majesty the King on June 22nd, 1960. The mills have a capacity for 50,000,000 metres of cotton cloth per day, they have been planned to be worked in three shifts, and they will produce all sorts of white and coloured cotton fabrics. The ultra-modern building was designed and the machinery installed by German technicians and cost $25,000,000. A completely new town with electricity, hot and cold water, and other facilities has been built beside the factory for its workers and officials. The factory is expected to provide full employment for 5,000 people. The Jangalak plant, which was opened by His Majesty the King on July 2nd, contains departments for repairing motor vehicles and manufacturing and repairing all kinds of spare parts. The department for repair has a capacity for 1,400 cars per annum. This plant cost $3,000,000, part of which was supplied by the Government and part by free enterprise. Work on this factory was begun by German technicians but it was completed with the aid of Soviet credit and technicians. The Margarine and Soap factories in Kunduz were completed in co-operation Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud at Kunduz Porcelain Plant. with German technicians and cost $4,000,000. These factories have an annual capacity for ginning 40,000 tons of cotton, expelling 4,500 tons of cotton-seed oil and producing 1,800 tons of toilet and washing soaps. The Khanabad hydro-electric project was completed with the help of German technicians and cost a total of $2,000,000. It has a capacity for 1,400 kilowatts and supplies these three factories in Kunduz. The Grishk hydro-electric station, which has a capacity for 3,500 kilowatts, was completed in co-operation with the United States International Co-operation Administration. The Department of Industries extended and renovated the Woollen Textile Factory in Kandahar with the assistance of Polish technicians. The Match Factory in Kabul was extended and the Diesel Power Project in Farah was completed during the fourth year of the Plan. The following projects are expected to be completed at the end of the fourth year of the economic plan: The Ghori Hydro-electric Project, which is being built with the aid of Soviet credit and technicians, will have a capacity of 9,000 kilowatts. The Ghori Cement Factory, which is being built with the aid of Czechoslovak credit and technicians, and will have a capacity of 200 tons of cement per day. This factory will be extended during the second five-year Plan to produce 400 tons of cement per day. The Preserve Factory of Kandahar, which is being built with Czechoslovak credit and technicians, will have a capacity for 35,000 tons of tinned and bottled jams, syrups and processed dried fruits. The Zindadanan Motor Repair Factory, which will be completed with American aid and technicians. The Kandahar Motor Repair Factory, which will be completed with United States aid and technicians. The Vegetable Oil Factory in Mazari-sharif. 35

Women at work in a Silk Rayon Factory in Kabul. During the fourth year of the Plan, work was begun on two great projects to harness Kabul river. The Naghlo Power Project will have a capacity of 60,000 kilowatts and the Daroonta Multi-purpose Project is intended to irrigate the adjoining deserts and produce 10,000 kilowatts at the same time. One of the main problems of industrial development in Afghanistan has been the training of personnel on different levels. As a solution to the problem many technical schools have been established in the country and all industrial establishments have taken steps to train their workers on the job with the aid of local and foreign technicians. Also a number of men are sent abroad each year to get more specialised training. As an example, 49 people were sent abroad for this purpose during the fourth year of the Plan. THE DEPARTMENT OF MINES The measures adopted by the Department of Mines under the fourth year of the economic Plan were calculated to increase production in existing mines and pave the way for extensive development in the future by means of research and investigation. In the field of petroleum, prospecting an area of 43,000 square kilometres, which had been previously explored by Soviet experts, was explored more extensively during the fourth year of the Plan. The second phase of seismic operations and the preparation of geological maps with a scale of 1/50,000 have been completed. Drilling for petroleum in favourable rocks continued. Three oil wells which have a total depth of 3,800 metres were drilled during the first three years of the Plan. During the fourth year considerable layers of rock containing petroleum and natural gas were discovered. An area of approximately 72,000 square miles was marked out for oil prospecting and arrangements were made to prepare geological maps of this area. To facilitate 36

ground photography, made considerable progress during the fourth year of the Plan. It was equipped with a workshop, warehouses, archives and a laboratory. The institute has now more than 100,000 aerial and ground photographs and the work of captioning the geographic loca- tions on the pictures has been partly completed. The institute will soon have a laboratory for copying photographs. In the field of hydrometry, pigels have been installed in river Kabul and its tributaries to determine the level of water in different seasons. To utilise under- ground waters in areas where pure drink- ing water is not available a number of deep wells have been dug with consider- able success and orders have been placed with various firms to supply the necessary equipment. Geological surveying in co-operation with the German Technical Assistance Mission continues in the south-east and south-west regions and studies were made, especially in the south-east regions, in order to find geological structures con- taining oil and natural gas. Likewise investigations were continued on radioactive material with the assistance of the French Atomic Energy Experts. The Institute has employed a number of promising young men and is sending four of them to study geology and hydrology abroad. Other mines throughout the country have been surveyed and arrangements have been made to supply the oil prospecting organisation in northern Afghanistan with local minerals which they need. Studies were continued in co-operation with Soviet technicians to find out the extent of iron deposits in the country and the economic conditions under which they should be exploited. An extensive programme has been prepared to train mining personnel both in Afghanistan and abroad and 22 students have been sent to various countries for further training. A model wearing a dress made of the fabrics woven in Feroz Factory. the oil prospecting both areas were equipped with repair workshops for motor vehicles and a laboratory was established in Mazarisharif to analyze various crude oils. Production of coal at Aishpushta and Karkar mines was increased by mechanisation. One generator, with a capacity for 250 kilowatts was installed for each of the two mines. Miners were provided with houses and seedlings were planted around the mines in order to provide timber for the mines in the future. Studies were made in a vast area between Mazarisharif and Herat to try to deter- mine the extent of coal deposits in the country with a view to preparing the next five-year economic plan. The Institute of Geological Survey, which has departments for geology, minerology, paleontology, aerial and 37

TABLE OF MAJOR INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION IN AFGHANISTAN During the month of Hoot (February/March 1960) Cotton Fabrics (in thousand metres) 13,120.4 Jute Fabrics (in thousand metres) 22.1 Cotton Yarn (in thousand bundles) 1.1 Woollen Fabrics (in thousand metres) 17.3 Matches (in thousand dozens) 39.8 Soap (in thousand cakes) 220.0 Cement (in tons) 3,445.0 China (in single pieces) 17,803.0 Sugar (in tons) 4,475.0 Coal (in tons) 5,938.0 CAPACITY AND PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICITY IN AFGHANISTAN During the Year 1959/60 PLANT CAPACITY PRODUCTION IN KILOWATT HOURS Sarobi 22,000 37,796,183 Pulikhumri 4,800 10,765,000 Jabalseraj 2,840 2,586,600 Wardag 3,360 7,183,800 A nomad camp in a valley near Kabul. 38

PUBLIC WORKS His Majesty, followed by the Minister of Public Works, on an inspection tour at the Salang Pass During the fourth year of the Plan the Ministry of Public Works has been able to complete a number of projects and has been working on a number of other projects which will soon be completed. The Jalalabad-Torkham highway which is 130 kilometres long, has been laid and is now ready for asphalting. The Kabul-Matak highway, which is 67 kilometres long, is also ready for asphalting. The Kizil-Kala-Doshi highway, which is 235 kilometres long, has been completed. The Alchin bridge on the River Kunduz has been built under a contract with the Soviet Techno-Export Company. This bridge is 120 metres long and 8.90 metres wide. It has been constructed of steel and concrete and will bear 60 tons. With the completion of this bridge the distance between Kunduz and Kizil Kala has been shortened by about seven hours. The Salang highway, which will be the most important route connecting the capital with the northern provinces, will be 200 kilometres shorter than the existing Shikari highway. The agreement for the construction of the Salang highway was signed between the Ministry of Public Works and the Soviet Techno-Export Company on April 18th, 1958, and it was decided that the road should be constructed in three sections: The first section connecting Doshi with Doshakh has been laid and is in the process of being asphalted. This section is between nine and 10 metres wide but the corners have a special width to avoid collisions in heavy traffic. Corners are 125 metres wide on the lowland and 60 metres wide 39

Road-building equipment preparing the Salang highway. His Majesty walking along an unprepared part of the Salang Highway.

in the mountains, except in cases when the rocks have been especially difficult to blast and corners are 20 metres wide. Many bridges have been built in the first section and a hotel has been built to provide accommodation for travellers. The second section connecting Jaba-lseraj with Olang is 30 kilometres long, is also ready for asphalting and the same procedure for the corners has been adopted. The third section connecting Olang with Doshakh, which is 25 kilometres long, including the tunnel which is 2.5 kilometres long, and also has an iron and concrete bridge, is under construction. Each section has been provided with repair workshops, warehouses and housing for road maintenance personnel. With the completion of this highway, which would pass through the highest passes of the Hindu Kush Mountains, Afghanistan will have one of the best highways in the region, which will be both picturesque and very practical. The Torkham-Kabul highway, which is 77 miles long, has now been asphalted by the I.C.A. technicians under a special agreement which was signed between the Ministry of Public Works and the I.C.A. on June 21st, 1958. According to another agreement between the Ministry and the I.C.A. on March 3rd, 1957, the I.C.A. has been providing the necessary asphalting machinery for the road maintenance project. Another agreement was reached on June 3rd, 1958, with an American Company to build and asphalt the Spinboldak-Kandahar highway. An agreement was signed with another American company for the surveying and photographing of the site and the actual work began in September, 1959. The Bagram Airport has been very Machinery at work at Kabul airport. Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud signing the document which will be placed at the foundations of Kabul airport.

Premier Sardar Mohammed Daoud officially opening the Port of Kizil Kala by cutting the traditional tri-colour ribbon. General view of Kizil Kala port on the Oxus. Petrol pumping unit at Kizil Kala. Premier Sardar Mohammed Daoud, himself a keen admirer of modern architecture, makes a critical study of the plans for the new city of Talukan. 42

nearly completed under a special agreement with the Soviet Techno-Export Company. The airport comprises a main taxi-way which is 4.36 kilometres long and has an area of 47,600 square metres; a connecting taxi-way with an area of 16,700 square metres; a southern run-way with a total area of 5,200 square metres and a northern run-way with a total area of 5,200 square metres. All the above-mentioned sections of the airport have been completed and are in use. A small canal with a length of 5,520 metres has been constructed in order to drain the airport. Provisions have been made for the installation of lighting throughout the airport, and receiving and transmitting equipment for the communications building. Five hangars fitted out with modern equipment have been built. They have concrete surfaces and a total area of 76,000 square metres. The control tower, garages, workshops, the filling station, transformer house, a twenty-bed hospital and a polyclinic are nearing completion. Other buildings for storage, refrigeration, central heating, hydrogen production, pilot quarters, oxygen production, laboratories and workshops will soon be completed. The Kabul airport, which is also being built by the Soviet Techno-Export Company, has runways, taxi-ways, refuelling facilities, lighting, water pumps, drainage system, central heating, communications centre, air terminal building, and so on. The whole project will be completed within one and a half years. The Habibia High School, which is being built on Darulaman Avenue by the Hochtief A.G. Company, will have 49 classes, 28 offices, 15 laboratories, a large library, two reading rooms, a large hall, hot and cold water and lavatories. This four-storey building will occupy a total area of 15,000 square metres. The school will also have large playing fields and a lawn. Siemens Company will furnish and install the electrical fittings. The complete building will cost 24,000,000 Afghanis. The Public Health Institute building, which will have an auditorium for 800 people and will occupy 10,500 square metres, is nearing completion. It will have four storeys and will cost 28,000,000 Afghanis. A 300-bed hospital is being built near Kabul by the Hochtief A.G. construction company. It will have three wings, each Brigadier-General Mohammed Azeem, Acting Deputy Minister of Public Works (centre seated) and Mr. Golorey, Economic and Technical Counsellor of the Soviet Embassy in Kabul (on his left) signing the Jalalabad irrigation project. 48

Mr. Mohammed Kabir, Minister of Public Works, and Mr. Degtyar, Soviet Ambassador in Kabul, signing the Kizil Kala protocol. with a capacity for 100 beds, and will cost 33,000,000 Afghanis. A new Foreign Office building is being built to the north of the existing Foreign Office premises. It is being constructed of iron and concrete and the outside will be covered with decorative marble. There will be two wings, one with three storeys and the other one storey. The three- storey wing will be used for offices and the other wing will contain reception rooms and halls. Hochtief A.G. will install central heating and Siemens will supply equipment for the communications centre, telephones, clocks and electricity. A new studio building for Radio Kabul is being built by the Unimac Company on the edge of the old Kabul airport and will occupy 2,650 square metres and cost 30,000,000 Afghanis. This three-storey building will have 22 offices, one library, two warehouses, 14 studios and a large auditorium. The two other buildings nearing completion are the Commercial Bank, which will occupy 25,000 square metres and cost 15,000,000 Afghanis, and the Ministry of Mines and Industries new building. The Kargha Dam has been repaired and a considerable amount of water stored in the basin, to irrigate the adjoining areas and it is expected that the repair work will soon be finished. Early autumn in rugged Afghanistan.

COMMUNICATIONS During the fourth year of the Plan the Ministry of Communications has opened 85 new post offices, completed 14 new buildings for post offices, and has made arrangements for the completion of the channel system telephone communications between Kabul, Kandahar and Farah; Kabul and Torkham; and Kabul and Mazarisharif. Several new telegraph transmitters and receivers have been installed and the first telephoto transmitting centre has been opened. During the fourth year of the Plan the volume of telegraphic communication has increased by 12 per cent.; 30 teleprinters were imported, and students were recruited for training in their operation. Five telegraph stations were opened in Shindand, Shibirghan, Kizil Kala, Ghorat and Talukan. Wireless telephony has been considerably extended by the import of new equipment connecting Kabul with the United States, Europe, Pakistan, Iran and India. Wireless telephone connections between Kabul, Kandahar, Mazar, Maimana, Herat, Kunduz and Pulikhumri which were set up during the first three years of the Plan have been working very well. The revenue obtained from the wireless telephone communications increased by 30 per cent. over the previous year. 865 kilometres of new wires were set up between various localities, and 8,000 metallic poles were imported for the purpose of extending channel system lines between Kabul and Mazar, and Kabul and Torkham and the equipment for channel system communications between Kabul and Kandahar, Kabul, Ghazni and Kalat, Kandahar and Spinboldak has been installed. An agreement has been signed with the Siemens Company for the provision of channel system equipment for communications between Kandahar, Grishk, Farah and Herat. The first storey of the automatic telephone exchange in Kandahar was completed at an expense of 1,000,000 Afghanis and work on the second storey is being continued. The equipment for Kandahar telephone exchange was delivered and two Czechoslovak engineers and a group of Afghan technicians have commenced work on the internal wiring of Kandahar. To meet the shortage of telephone lines for Kartachar in Kabul, a separate 200 line switchboard has been installed. The Ministry of Communications has imported 50 tons of iron wiring, 40 automatic and battery operated switchboards with various capacities, 2,000 batteries, 1,800 telephones and a considerable amount of spare parts. The abovementioned equipment cost 2,000,000 Afghanis. New lines have been extended for 300 kilometres throughout the country and the number of new telephones in the capital and provinces has been increased by 10.5 per cent. since last year. Revenue from the telephones has increased by 10 per cent. accordingly. In the field of radio broadcasting the Ministry of Communications succeeded in importing all the necessary equipment to install several new aerials and operate the stand-by diesel generators. This has resulted in a 50 per cent. increase in the broadcasting time of Radio Kabul, bringing it to 19½ hours per day. The Ministry's engineers found suitable frequencies to broadcast programmes for the Middle and Far East including Japan and Indonesia and are trying to find a better frequency for Europe. The Broadcasting House in Yakatoot has been completed and the studios will be completed during the coming year. The Ministry has imported 15 new amplifiers, 12 motor generators, 20 loud-speakers and a number of tape recorders, and repaired 100 old loudspeakers which are part of the public address system. The mediumwave transmitter has been repaired and the short wave transmitter has been equipped with a stand-by studio for 45

emergency purposes. Officials of the Ministry of Com- munications participated, during the fourth year of the Plan, in international conferences on telecommunications and made points about radio administration and frequency limitations. During the fourth year of the Plan the Ministry of Communications received a number of mechanical devices from the United Nations and the Siemens Com- pany. The draft agreement for wireless telephone communications between India and Afghanistan has been prepared and is expected to be signed soon. The building for Kandahar Communi- cations Directorate and the building for the Kandahar Telephone Exchange and Channel System, which together cost 5,000,000 Afghanis, are very nearly com- pleted. The buildings for the Channel system in Ghazni and Kalat have now been completed. Construction work on buildings for the Directorates of Com- munications in Maimana, Kapisa, Khost, Nangarhar, Herat, Baghlan, Kunduz, Talukhan and Pulikhumri, which together will cost over 12,000,000 Afghanis, is going on. The Ministry has taken a number of steps in connection with the training of personnel. A number of young men have been sent abroad for training in special fields and training courses in Kabul have been flourishing. Of students sent abroad one has returned after obtaining his doctorate in postal regulations. Three others have returned from Germany after studying channel telephone communica- tions. Two young men were sent to Germany, two to France and one to Czechoslovakia to study various aspects of engineering and communications. The training course on the channel system in Kabul was attended by ten students who were subsequently employed by the Tele- phone Department. Twelve boys and girls trained in teleprinter operation in Kabul were also employed by the Ministry. The Communications School run by the Ministry has made consider- able progress during the fourth year of the Plan. The students in the post and telegraph class now number 40. A group of young men was selected to study tele- phone lines inspection. Practical study has been flourishing in all classes: students are often taken out by their teachers to see the activities of various departments of the Ministry in process. These two calves grazing on this picturesque slope should have a good sense of beauty.

COMMERCE During the fourth year of the Plan, the Ministry of Commerce took a number of steps to boost internal and foreign trade, regulate the supply markets, compile statistics for export import trade and compile charts to show market fluctuations. The Ministry has also made considerable efforts to strengthen trade relations between Afghanistan and other countries and find new markets for Afghan merchandise, concentrating specially on neighbouring countries. To achieve this, the Ministry has entered into new agreements and renewed old ones with a number of countries, sent delegates and Afghan goods to international trade fairs, participated in international conferences on economic and commercial affairs, and invited delegations to Kabul from other countries to discuss trade. On the 13th of December, 1959, an agreement on trade and scientific and technical co-operation was signed between the Royal Afghan Government and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which established for the first time trade rela- tions and technical co-operation between the two countries. The Trade and Payments Agreement was signed between Afghanistan and the United Arab Republic, on the 19th of April, 1960. An Afghan delegation in Prague signed a protocol for the renewal of the fifth term of the exchange of goods and payments between the two countries on the 9th February, 1960. On February 29th, 1960, an Afghan delegation signed a protocol on the fourth term of the Agreement on the Exchange of Goods and Prices between the Royal Government of Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of Poland in Warsaw. On the 4th of February, 1960, the protocol of the ninth term of the trade agreement between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union was signed by Mr. Sherzad, the Afghan Minister of Commerce and Mr. Kozinyn, the Soviet Deputy Minister of Foreign Trade. The Ministry of Commerce participated in the International Conference on Improving Trade in South East Asia and the Far East which was convened in Mr. Suleiman, Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs of Afghanistan and Dr. Kreutel, Chargé d'Affaires for Austria, signing the Protocol of the Air Agreement between Afghanistan and Austria. Mr. Sherzad and Mr. Kuzmin signing the Afghan/Soviet Trade Protocol. 47

The Afghan Minister of Commerce, Mr. Sherzad, signing the Trade and Exchange of Payments Agreement with the leader of the U.A.R. delegation in Kabul. Mr. Sherzad, Minister of Commerce at a meeting with Dr. Blum, President of the Asia Foundation. Bangkok, at which the Afghan delegation expressed the viewpoints of Afghanistan and presented a number of proposals. Another Afghan delegation took part in the Marketing Conference held in Cairo on January 11th, 1960, and attended a seminar on marketing. The seminar was sponsored by the F.A.O. The Second Economic Conference of Afro-Asian Countries which was sponsored by the Cairo Chamber of Commerce was also attended by an Afghan delegation in May, 1960. The agenda of this conference was concerned with proposals for establishing an Afro-Asian Economic Co-operation Board, the improvement of trade relations between participating countries and increasing foreign investments. The Ministry of Commerce in co-operation with the Ministry of Agriculture participated in the International Fair in New Delhi which was opened on November 11th, 1959. Afghanistan's stall at this fair contained 152 different items ranging from raw materials, specimen Karakul skins, rugs of various designs and different dried fruits which attracted great attention. The Afghan Delegation attended the French Industrial Fair in Teheran as an observer, on the 31st October, 1959. The delegation was composed of officials of the Ministries of Commerce, Agriculture, Public Health, Public Works, Mines and Industries and Communications, who made a special point of examining interesting exhibits in their own fields. In June, 1960 an Afghan delegation dis-played Afghan agricultural and industrial products at Poznan International Fair and drew the attention of many European countries. In order to give local merchants a wider range of choice and bring about healthy competition between foreign importers, the Ministry of Commerce took a number of steps to open showrooms through trading agencies in Kabul where their goods were displayed to consumers as well as traders. The showrooms opened so far are those of Poland, Italy and Austria. It is strongly hoped that others will follow suit. In order to solve a number of problems in connection with Afghan goods in transit in Pakistan the Ministry of Commerce 48

sent an official to discuss the matter with Pakistani officials in Karachi. The Paki-stani Government however, created a number of obstacles against international regulations and the Transit Agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Ministry has frequently received reports of goods being lost or misplaced on their way to Afghanistan, and discrimination between Afghan and Pakistani mer-chandise, which is contrary to the first article of the above-mentioned agreement, takes place. This means that railway trucks are not made readily available for Afghan goods and they get left at the stations for long periods of time. Contrary to the fifth article of the agreement adequate documents are not provided for the Afghan merchandise and this causes much delay. Further, Afghan goods are not allowed to stay in the loading stations longer than 24 hours and so they are coming under demurrage. which costs millions of Afghanis each year. Contrary to the fourth article of the agreement, Afghan transit goods are charged all sorts of taxes, such as sales, customs fees, addi-tional stamp tax, refugee tax, doorkeeper tax and the like. Each Afghan lorry is charged 12 Pakistani Rupees by the Paki-stani Political Agent at the frontier. This has caused many complaints in the Afghanistan economic and trading circles. The Ministry of Commerce has tried all channels of negotiation with the Paki-stanis ranging from direct talks with officials to correspondence though the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Afghan delegation sent to Pakistan to draw their attention to the actual situation which is a flagrant contradiction of the transit agreement returned to Kabul without achieving any result due to the lack of co-operation of the Pakistani authorities. But on the other hand the transit of Afghan goods through the Soviet Union has run more smoothly than in previous years and the results are very encouraging. In order to improve the forwarding and delivery activities in the river ports the Ministry of Commerce has opened a Port Trust within the Ministry with branch Early spring brings millions of these flowers in northern Afghanistan.

offices in each river port, such as Kizil Kala, Klift, Tashguzar and Torguhundi. These branch offices deal with forwarding and delivering Afghan goods and send regular reports to their headquarters. The following table shows the amount of goods in metric tons handled by the Port Trust Authorities: Name of Port Exports Imports Kizil Kala ... 10,245 3,653 Kleft ... 6,902 11,067 Toshguzar ... 11,905 3,838 Torguhundi ... 7,089 28,679 To encourage local companies in pro- duction, the Ministry of Commerce granted a credit of 50,000,000 Afghanis to the Cotton Combine of Kunduz, Amin Ltd., of Mazarisharif, Machinery Manu- facturers of Mazarisharif, Sakhi Manufac- ture of Mazarisharif, and the Industrial Company of Mazarisharif. 64,000,000 Afghanis were allotted to wool exporters. 54,000,000 went to the Wool Exporting Company and 6,000,000 to the Fruit Exporting Company, which had recently obtained permission to export wool. A credit of 50,000,000 Afganis was granted to the Karakul Export Company to buy more skins for export purposes and thus help the Kakakul breeders. In order to make Afghan merchandise comply with international standards an Export Committee was set up to find ways of raising the standard of goods. The committee recommended up-to-date train- ing for officials concerned and a group of young men dealing with sorting and standardization was sent abroad to attend a special seminar. During the fourth year of the Plan the following new companies were created which amalgamated scattered assets to make for better organisation: Name of Company Capital in Afghanis Type of Company Field of Activity Construction Co. ... 3,000,000 Joint Stock Construction Nashir Ltd. ... 1,000,000 Limited Import/Export Nouri Ltd. ... 1,000,000 Limited Import/Export Salimi Ltd. ... 1,000,000 Limited Import/Export Sadozaye Ltd. ... 1,000,000 Limited Import/Export Abdul Kayoum Ltd. ... 2,000,000 Limited Import/Export The Ministry of Commerce encouraged the formation of nineteen more transport companies with a total capital of 45,908,462 Afghanis to improve transport within the country. The Research Department of the Ministry of Commerce, in co-operation with local and foreign experts adopted the international code for statistics. Customs houses throughout the country have been keeping the Research Department sup- plied with figures pertaining to the import and export of goods and the Department is planning to publish an annual on import/export statistics and a quarterly to show the balance of Afghanistan's foreign trade. The Department of Regulations of the Ministry prepared draft statutes for the registration of trade marks and methods of dealing with commercial disputes, which will become law when they have been approved by the Council of Ministers and ratified in Parliament. Last but not least was the establishment of Chambers of Commerce in Nangarhar, Kataghan, Shibirghan provinces, to improve commercial intercourse between provinces and bring methods of trading up-to-date. 50

PUBLIC HEALTH The Ministry of Public Health took a number of important steps during the fourth year of the Plan to improve the standard of health throughout the country by providing more hospitals and clinics etc. The Department of Publications of the Ministry published several posters and pamphlets on smallpox, malaria and typhus which were distributed among the public. The mobile cinema unit of the Ministry showed a number of films on public health which were seen by over 40,000 people in Bibi Mahro, Logar, and Nangarhar. The radio health programme was continued and improved and local newspapers published articles on certain health topics prepared by the Department of Publications. Another improvement was the transformation of the former monthly "Roghtya Zairay" into a weekly periodical dealing exclusively with preventive medicine. The monthly "Roghtya" was also improved and now deals exclusively with curative medicine. Besides the publication of posters and supplements on special occasions such as "Children's Day", "Health Day" and "Red Crescent Week" the Department of Publications opened a library for the general public to study books on health and hygeine. The Department of X-rays and Laboratories opened X-ray centres in Maimana, Ghazni, Parwan, Mazarisharif and Khost. The Department of Dentistry imported equipment for a dental clinic in Kabul, opened a clinic in Maimana and others in other provinces will soon be opened. More students graduated from the School of Dentistry and began work in various provinces. The Department of International Relations made arrangements for the following officials of the Ministry of Public Health to represent Afghanistan at international meetings and conferences: Dr. M. A. Fakiri, Director of the Central Health Bureau, led the Afghan delegation to the 12th Regional Confer- ence of the W.H.O. in South East Asia which was convened in Ceylon; Dr. A. G. Afzal, Director General of Health Affairs went to the French Industrial Exhibition in Teheran to make a study of the new medical instruments exhibited on the the invitation of the French Government; Dr. A. Rahim, Deputy Minister of Public Health represented Afghanistan in the 25th Executive Council of the W.H.O. in Geneva; and finally Dr. A. G. Afzal and Dr. Fakiri participated in the 13th General Assembly of the World Health Organization in Geneva. Also arrangements were made by the Department of International Relations for a number of high ranking W.H.O. officials including Dr. Mani, the Regional Director for South East Asia, to visit Afghanistan and advise local authorities on relevant matters. The Ministry of Public Health sent the following doctors abroad during the fourth year of the plan to further their studies in the following fields: Dr. S. M. Sayedi to study epidemiology in the United States, Dr. M. Azam to study malarialogy in Lebanon, Dr. A. G. Safi to study clinical sciene in Britain, Dr. G. R. Hoshmand to study entomology in the Phillipines, Dr. A. G. Ahmadi to study sanitation in Lebanon, Dr. M. A. Mujaddedi and Dr. M. Azam to study Bacteriology in France, Dr. M. Isa and Dr. M. Karim Husseini to study malarialogy in India under the fellowships granted by the W.H.O. Also Dr. M. S. Tawfik and Dr. M. Ali both X-ray experts, Dr. H. A. Shifa, and Dr. M. Akram, both gynae- cologists, went to West Germany to 51

further their studies in their special fields on the fellowships granted by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany. The Department of Vaccines Preparation opened a two-month refresher course which was attended by boys and girls concerned with the preparation of vaccines. The graduates of the schools of midwifery, dispensary, and sanitarians were employed in various establishments in the capital and in the provinces. Also new doctors were sent to the hospitals in Kataghan, Mazarisharif, Nangarhar, Badakhshan, Maimana, and Ghazni provinces to cope with the growing demand for qualified personnel. The Maternity Hospital installed new equipment allotted separate apartments to children born prematurely and expectant mothers who need operations. Also arrangements were made for more refrigeration plant in the hospital. The Women's Sanitorium opened a well-equipped laboratory and considerably extended its lavatory facilities. The Department of Anti-Malaria Campaign sent four graduates of the Faculty of Medicine abroad to study malarialogy, opened a preliminary course on malaria which was attended by graduates of seven and eight grades picked up for this purpose, surveyed the remote areas to complete the country's map in connection with malaria, and employed three new doctors who had completed their studies abroad. Also the Department recruited 156 new students to be given special training in the field of malaria under the supervision of local and foreign experts. They will later join the combat squads working in various parts of the country. In order to carry out the anti-malaria campaign more effectively the Department equipped fourteen units each with a malaria expert, two malaria inspectors, one entomologist, four assistants, sixteen trained workers, and various sorts of spraying equipment. The Department of Epidemics Control opened three courses on epidemics: one in the Vaccine Institute, one in Kandahar, and the third in Nangarhar. The latter sent its graduates in the first part of the fourth year of the Plan. The small-pox epidemic which broke out in Nangarhar was vigorously fought against by the local vaccination squads who were reinforced by more qualified personnel from the Ministry and vaccinated 172,076 people. They saved many lives in the province. The graduates of the epidemics course in Kandahar vaccinated 91,125 people and the campaign was 98% successful. The local Directorate of Public Health was provided with vaccines enough for 705,000 people including infants. Likewise the Department of Epidemics Control provided the local health centres with vaccines enough for thousands of people against cholera, typhus, and other diseases and sent doctors to a number of provinces where the occurrence of certain diseases was reported. In order to prevent the occurrence of typhus 177,960 kilos of 10% D.D.T. was prepared out of which 101,160 kilos were sent to the provinces and 76,800 kilos allotted to the Central Health Bureau for spraying purposes. According to the studies made by the experts of the Ministry of Public Health, the 10% D.D.T. has not been strong enough to destroy completely the parasite causing the disease, so a report was sent to the W.H.O. to advise another germicide. The Ministry finally managed, in co-operation with the experts of the W.H.O., to purchase quantities of B.H.C. which will be used during the latter part of the fourth year of the Plan. 52

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES THE exact geographic description of Afghanistan is between Longitude E.60.30 and 75.50, and Latitude N.29.30 and 38.30. Bounded on all sides by land, it covers an area of 250,000 sq. miles, from the awesome peaks of the Hindu- kush in the north-east, to the western deserts of the Helmand. Along the approximately 1,200-mile- long northern border, mostly defined by the rivers Amu (Oxus) and Murghab, lie the Soviet Republics of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. The western border, against Iran, is also partially marked by rivers and lakes, and runs from Zulfiqar down to the Malik Siah mountain. The southern boundary is flanked by Baluchistan; whilst to the east the Wakhan finger of Afghanistan touches on to the Sinkiang Province of the Chinese People's Republic, to Chitral, and Pakhtunistan. Afghanistan has been called the "Switzerland of Asia", mainly due to its mountains and the absence of a seaboard. From the north-east to the south-west stretch the massive Hindukush ranges, estimated at between 2½ and 3 million years old. They are, in fact, a continuation of the Himalayas, which, after subsiding in the desert area between Afghanistan and Iran, reappear in Southern Persia and reach up to Turkey. Another extension of this line goes through Herat and into Iran to form the Khurasan range. Around the north-eastern tip of Afghanistan we get the immense, high Pamir Plateau, commonly known as the "Roof of the World", of which Wakhan comprises the western section. This latter, a narrow strip of land situated south of the Victoria Lake, separates the U.S.S.R. from Chitral, and creates the border between Afghanistan and the Sinkiang Province of China. Due to the changes wrought during the Fourth Geological Period the whole area has the appearance of giant walls towering thousands of feet above narrow valleys, where the thawing of perpetual snows has produced power- ful torrents. Since Wakhan suffers severe winter for seven months of the year only a few of the southernmost valleys are inhabited, generally by folk who draw their live- lihood from sheep rearing. MOUNTAIN RANGES Hindukush The Hindukush itself is the largest range in Afghanistan, and has played a significant role throughout her history: for centuries its passes have been used as communication routes between the Amu and Sind (Indus) rivers. Straddling the country from the north- east to the south-west, the Hindukush should be studied from two viewpoints— the central core; and the peripheral ranges, which we shall enumerate later on. From the north to the central core the shrinking of the earth's crust caused in- numerable anticlines, later to take the shape of mountains. The synclines, on the other hand, have been completely or partially filled with rivers, so creating tectonic valleys, such as at Seighan and Surkhab in the north, and Panjsher, Ghorband, and Bamyan in the south. In all the Hindukush comprises a length of around 370 miles, which may be divided topographically into two sections, eastern and western. The former runs from the Uli Valley in Little Pamir to the Khawak Pass in Southern Badakhsan, the western range from Khawak to Ak Robat in the Valley of Bamyan. The Eastern Hindukush is highest of the Afghan mountain ranges. Approxi- mately 16,400ft. above sea level none of its passes is lower than 8,000ft., which means they are deep in snow for most of the year. The greatest peak is that of the Ter Ajmir, 25,400.; and amongst the most important passes come the Shetbal, 15,978ft., the Aulian, 16,634ft., and the Khar Zar, 15,748ft. 54

Sata Kandaw Pass, Sulaiman Ranges in Pactya Province.

In these passes, and in the northern Kunar Valley, are traces of glaciers, and at heights above 16,400ft. glaciers may still be found similar to those of the later part of the Third Geological Era. It is due to the melting of these that we get the tributaries of the Amu and Sind on either side of the Eastern Hindukush. The almond shape of the Western Hindukush enjoys an average height of 15,600ft., but its lower passes have been employed by travellers and invaders over the ages. The Khawak Pass, the most easterly point of the Western Hindukush, reaches to 11,800ft. Other passes are Tal, Koshan, Char Dar, Dandan Shikan and Shibar. Koh-i-Baba This range constitutes the central formation of Afghan mountains, separated from the Hindukush by the Bamyan Valley, and extending roughly across the middle of the country. With an average height of 13,100ft. above sea-level, some of its peaks do in fact attain 16,400 ft. and more, but the Shah Fouladi, at 16,864ft., is its highest. The range itself provides the water for a considerable number of waterways, amongst them the Band-i-Amir, the Hari Rud, and the tributaries of the Helmand, all of which are conceived in the Koh-i-Baba slopes. The passes are of great importance as a means of communication, and being more accessible than those of the Hindukush are very attractive to travellers. Parapomisus To the west of the Koh-i-Baba is yet another colossal range, the Parapomisus (Feroz Koh); known to the north of the Hari Rud as Koh-i-Saffid, and to the south as the Western Sia-Koh. The rivers radiating from these flow north towards the Aral and Caspian Seas, and from the southern slopes go eastwards to the Helmand. Tir Band-i-Turkestan North of the Parapomisus range, and above the valleys of the Murghab River comes the Tir Band-i-Turkestan range, running horizontally between Longitudes 66 and 63. But although it seems an independent chain it is in reality an extension of the central core of the Hindukush. Some 180 miles in length, the average height of its mountains is only half that of its sister Hindukush. One of the characteristics of this range is the dissimilarity between its northern and southern slopes. The latter have eroded and changed over the years; whilst the northern faces remain intact as a result of the sand deposited on them by the winds sweeping down from the Turkestan desert. Sia Koh and Spinghar Back to the east of the Koh-i-Baba, just beneath the lower Hindukush, are yet two further ranges; the Sia Koh commencing in Swat and extending westwards through Kunar and Kabul to disappear in the Logar Valley; and the Spinghar stretching westwards from Peshawar also terminating in Logar. Amongst the passes of the Spinghar is the famous Khyber, and it is in these two ranges that many Pakhtun tribes reside. Western Sulaiman Flanking the south-eastern corner of the country lies the Western Sulaiman range, extending through to the Eastern Sulaiman in Waziristan and Baluchistan. These mountains are perhaps the most attractive in Afghanistan, enhanced as they are by forests and fertile valleys. WATERWAYS As regards rivers Afghanistan can be divided into three main basins—the Helmand and Indus basins to the south, and the Aral-Caspian basin to the north. A great many rivers emanating from Pamir and the northern Hindukush, from the Koh-i-Baba, and the Western Sia Koh flow towards the Caspian basin. Some of these, like the Amu, finally flow right into the Caspian or Aral Seas; whilst others, like the Murghab and Hari Rud, have now ceased to do so and disappear in the deserts and steppes. 56

The Amu (Oxus) This forms the boundary between Afghanistan and the Soviet Republic for a distance of about 700 miles. Known as Aab-i-Wakhan at its source in Little Pamir, and later as Aab-i-Panja, it is gradually augmented by the several tributaries which join it, until it eventually becomes the full-spated Amu. Before reaching Istkashim, in a virtually east- west direction, it crosses deep gorges and chasms. Here it turns directly north on its journey to Wishkari, and drops a height of 3,300ft. From Wishkari it courses southwards again to where the Kokcha joins it, and then runs west into desert- land, until, at Khamiab, it leaves Afghan territory altogether to flow up to the Aral Sea. The Murghab This river has its sources in two lakes lying alongside Latitude 35. From their height of 8,200ft. the waters of these two lakes flow west to converge at Charsada, and form the Murghab. Flowing initially through the Chagh- charan and Feroz Koh areas, the Murghab then descends to the plain, and changes course up to Bala Murgrah. Its fertile shores are used extensively for agriculture; and at Maruchak, some thirty miles from Bala Murghab, the river is cut by the boundary between Afghan- istan and Russian Turkmenistan. The Hari Rud This, too, rises from two lakes, the Sangalab and the Sarjangal, both occurring 13,100ft. above sea level in the Koh-i-Baba range. It travels between the Western Sia Koh and the Koh-i-Saffid to the verdant plain of Herat, slowing and widening as it goes. Before arriving at Koshan, near the Afghan-Persian border, the river drops more than 10,600ft., then swings north-east to Islan Qala, and north to Turkmenistan. Between Koshan and Tuman Akha the Hari Rud flows inside Afghan territory, but hereon it marks the boundary between Afghanistan and Iran, until at Zulfiqar it flows out into the Turkmen deserts. The Kabul This river, from which the capital takes its name, rises at Unai, 11,500ft. above sea level, and flows down into the Kabul Valley. Before reaching the capital it is joined by a number of tributaries, and later, on its way to Jalalabad, by the Logar and Panjsher. At Jalalabad it is met by the most important of its tributaries, the Kunar; and at Attock, near Peshawar, it finally flows into the mighty Sind, having run some 286 miles. In the summer months it is used to irrigate the majority of the zones through which it passes. The Helmand Of all the rivers of Afghanistan the Helmand is the longest, 620 miles. Rising from the Hazarajat mountains near the source of the Kabul, at a height of 12,500ft., it flows south-westwards through very mountainous country to Girishk. It is just south of here that its main tribu- tary, the Arghandab, joins it. The Arghandab itself is a river of considerable note, with three tributaries, and in fact it only joins the Helmand in winter time, for during the hotter seasons its waters are harnessed for irrigation purposes. Hereonafter the Helmand runs through barren land, terminating in the three great Hamun lakes which lie on the Afghan- Iranian border. The flow of the Helmand is very fluctuating, ranging between 2,000 and 60,000 cubic feet per second, accounting for the delta and lakes at its mouth, and the frequent changes in the boundary between Afghanistan and Iran. Recently however, the entire Helmand Valley has come within a vast irrigation scheme. Under the Five-Year Plan its waters are being harnessed to supply the formerly barren area with the water so desperately needed; and the flow will be controlled to guard against floods, especially in the area near Chakhansur. 57

CLIMATE AFGHANISTAN has no coastline and therefore does not benefit from the sea's mild and moist weather, because the sea breezes are blocked by the southern ranges of mountains along the Afghan border, and any precipitation they cause does not penetrate into Afghanistan. This results in mostly a rather dry and hot climate over the southern and south-western lowlands. Similarly, many of the northern winds blowing over Siberia do not reach Afghanistan sufficiently to affect the weather a great deal, although those which do make winter rather severe in many parts of the country. On the other hand, Afghanistan's height above sea level governs the climate considerably. Thus there are areas where the summer months are intensely hot, and there are other places where the weather is extremely mild in summer. Climatically speaking, Afghanistan can be divided into three regions: High regions, regions of intermediate height, and lowlands. The high regions are composed of mountains and river valleys where, generally speaking, the climate is cold and the temperature variation in different seasons is considerable. Places above 7,500ft. generally have longer winters, sometimes extending to about seven months. Nooristan, a large section of Badakhshan and Hazarajat have this kind of weather. (Areas above 12,500ft. are uninhabitable and are usually covered with perpetual snow.) Areas between 4,000 and 7,500ft., such as Kabul, Ghazni, Katawaz, parts of Badakhshan and Hazarajat, the upper Kunar valley and others have a milder climate and four distinctive seasons. Summers are not very hot. Winters can be cold, sometimes reaching -4° F. (-20° C.). The second category includes places at heights between 2,700—4,000ft., such as the northern slopes of the Hindukush, the foothills of the Ghor mountains, Kandahar and the lower valley of Harirud. These places have a hot summer, but their winter is not very cold, the temperature reaching to about +14° F. (-10° C.). The lowlands are areas lower than 2,700ft. and include parts of northern Afghanistan, the entire south-western part and the lower Kabul valley. The summer temperature is extreme, reaching about 120° F. (48.4° C.) in the sun. The nights and winter temperatures are warm. The rainfall is the lowest there. To the south- A farm in Nouristan.

The last crags of the lower Hindukush, just above Bamyan. west and west there are also summer winds carrying hot air, brown dust and sand in a generally north-to-south direction. This is also called the "120 days dust storm". In Afghanistan, spring (March—May) is the rainy season. There are thunderstorms and floods in spring and occasionally in early summer. Other than this period and the winter months, the sky is of the deepest blue colour, and there are sunny days and starry nights everywhere. The Spin Ghar and parts of Hindukush's main range, with their perpetually snow-capped peaks, strike a most beautiful picture against the blue skies and brown or green countryside, according to the different seasons of the year. Spring and fall seasons are ideal, when the days and nights are comfortably cool and the atmosphere as a whole is invigorating. The autumn, however, has another advantage: many varieties of fruit, for which Afghanistan is famous, ripen and abound in markets all over the country. VEGETATION Deodar, common spruce, pine and larch are the conifers which grow in forests at levels from 6,000 to 10,000ft. These forests are located in Paktya and Nangarhar provinces. Other trees in these regions are yew, hazel, juniper, walnut, peach and almond. Species of hawthorn, blackberry, current, gooseberry, honeysuckle and roses are also found here. At lower heights in the north can be found citrous fruits and wild vines. Lower still and down to 3,000ft. there are walnut, oak, alder, ash, poplar, willow, roses, jasmine, acacia, sinjid (Elaeagnus angustifolia), pistachio, apricot, cherry, plum, quince, apple, pear, grapes and many other trees and shrubs. The lowest regions have citrous trees (in Nangarhar), palms, dates, figs and pomegranates. There are many varieties of medicinal herbs, some of which are also exported. Ferula asafetida (of which the gum resin 59

is exported commercially). *Ephedra Atropa belladonna*, sunflower, caraway seed, wormwood, camomile, mint, night-shade, saffron, poppies, berberis, marsh mallow and artemisia are a few of the medicinal herbs. Wheat, barley, rice, maize, varieties of millet, peas and beans are among the important crops grown in Afghanistan. Other plants of food value are: tomato, potato, egg plant, cucumber, spinach, carrot, turnip, lettuce, cauliflower, radish, onion, garlic, melon and watermelon. The Afghan melons, especially the ones from the Mazar-i-Sharif area, are very famous for their sweetness and delicacy. Cotton, tobacco, sugercane and beetroot are some of the other cultivated plants, the products of which supply various local industries. Clover, lucerne and alfalfa are fodder crops. FAUNA Afghanistan does not have a great many wild animals. The following are the known wild animals in the country; bear, wolf, fox, hyena, wild cat, wild dog, common leopard, tiger (Mongolian), mon- goose, wild sheep, deer, hedgehog, porcupine, hare, mole, jerboa and pica. Oorial, ibex, ovis poli and ammon inhabit the mountainous areas of central and north-eastern Afghanistan. The domestic animals include horses, camels, cows, ghizgaw (yak), donkeys, sheep, goats, dogs and cats. The many varieties of sheep include the famous Karakuli raised in northern Afghanistan. The Karakoli lambskin (also known as astrakhan and, wrongly, Persian lamb) comprises a very important export item for Afghanistan. There are many breeds of horses, the Kataghani being, perhaps, the best. Bactrian (two-humped) camels are to be found in the northern provinces. There are some 124 specimens of birds including pheasant, teal, crane, woodcock, partridge, falcon, hawk (some of which are trained for game-hunting) golden oriole, magpie, bulbul, swallow, quail, sparrow, pigeon, dove and cuckoo. Domestic birds include hens, ducks, geese and turkeys. Trout and some other varieties of fish abound in the fresh-water lakes near Bamyan and in all the major rivers. Bamyan Valley.

HISTORY THE geographical term "Afghanistan" is not the original name of the country. Prior to 1747 it was known as Khorassan, meaning "the land from which the sun rises". The original name of the country, however, as recorded in ancient documents, is Aryana. These documents are the "Vedas" and the "Avesta". The Vedas are collections of hymns and prayers of the Aryan race around the time of their migration south-eastward (to the sub-continent of India) and westward through Persia to the west, about 3,500 years B.C. Both Vedas and the Avesta speak of "Yama", the first King of the Aryans who ruled from Bakhdi, known today as Balkh in the province of Mazar-i-Sharif. The habitat of the early Aryans, according to Avesta, was the country north and south of the Hindukush mountains (extending through the heart of the Afghanistan of today). Thus when the ancient history of Afghanistan, is discussed, one is bound to find oneself talking of Aryana, of Bakhdi and of the people who lived there about 5,000 years ago. According to Avesta, three important dynasties ruled in Aryana. These were the Paradata, the Kavas and the Aspas. Yama was the founder of the first dynasty. The founder of the second dynasty was Kawikwata or Kaykvat. Here again the centre of Government was Balkh, and Alburz, a mountain to its south, was considered a sacred mountain which they called the "Mountain of light and knowledge". Lahr-Aspa was the founder of the third dynasty. It was during the reign of his son, Wishtaspa, that Zaratushtra the Great made his appearance. Zaratushtra, the founder of the doctrine of monotheism and the freedom of will to choose between Good and Evil, was born in Balkh around 1000 B.C. A series of internal and foreign wars during and after the reign of Wishtaspa resulted in feudalism taking the place of one strong Aryan Kingdom at Balkh. This went on till the Achaemenians of Persia came on the scene. Cyrus, the Achaemenian ruler, led his Persian army against the Aryans in battles which lasted five years (549-545 B.C.) and resulted in his death. Percipolis became the centre of the Achaemenian empire, but their rulers took advantage of the experience and knowledge of the Aryans, who were better acquainted with governmental affairs. This has been witnessed by Herodotus in his journeys through Aryana. Feudalism continued as before, and whenever occasion offered, small Aryan kingdoms rose against the Persian rulers and weakened them. This went on until the appearance on the scene of Alexander the Great (334-330 B.C.) when the Persian Empire was broken up and the last of the Achaemenians in Aryan territory was killed. The Afghanistan of that day then braced itself as a united nation against the Greek invader. A feudal ruler, Bessus, was proclaimed King at Balkh This hastened the Greek attack on Afghanistan. Herat was the first bastion which fell to the hand of Alexander. He built Alexandria Aria there, mainly to guard himself against attack from the rear, and went on to Seistan and thence to Arachosia, the Kandahar of today. This was in 329 B.C. From there he headed for the foothills of Hindukush, north of today's Kabul, where he founded a fourth Alexandria, the other two being at Seistan and Kandahar. In the spring of 328 B.C. he crossed the Hindukush via Ghorband and Kazhan to Adrapsaka, the present Andarab. Bessus prepared for the defence of his last stronghold of Balkh. The resulting war lasted two years. Alexander returned south after the conquest of Balkh and the 61

death of Bessus, and reaching the natural boundary between Central Asia and the sub-continent of India—the Indus River—crossed it near Attock. The invasion of the Aryan land took Alexander more than four years to complete. He left his generals behind him as rulers of various parts. These generals, in turn, were responsible for the establishment, after the death of Alexander, of the Greco-Bactrian rule in Afghanistan which lasted for two centuries. Meanwhile the Maurya dynasty, founded in India, acquired some areas to the south of Hindukush, bringing with it Buddhist culture and religion. Asoka (273-232 B.C.), the most important king of the dynasty, accepted Buddhism and established great centres of the religion in Afghanistan. It was from here that Buddhism spread to all parts of Asia and it was here that the Buddhist culture and tradition developed and flourished for more than a thousand years. The Indian rule, however, was short, as the Greco-Bactrian rulers soon expanded their influence and territory into India (220-20 B.C.). Balkh, during all this time, remained the centre of the government and was known as "The Mother of Cities". Around 50-20 B.C., however, the influence of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty had declined considerably and the regions north of the Hindukush were lost by them to the Parthans, Askas who gave their name to Seistan in south-eastern Afghanistan, Pahlevas and Kushanis. In time the Kushanis, coming down from across the Oxus, spread over the entire country and conquered a greater part of India. Kadphisus and Kanishka are two of the most famous Kushani rulers. The latter, also known as the Prince of Gandahara (today's eastern Afghanistan), ruled over an empire extending into the valleys of the four rivers—Oxus, Ganges, Indus and Tarum—and even beyond that into Sinkiang and Kashgar. His summer and winter capitals were both in the heart of Aryana up to this time, that is Kapisa (present Gagram, north of Kabul) and Purashapura (present Peshawar). Kanishka ruled between 120-160 A.D. and was followed by other Kushani rulers whose dynasty ended around 220 A.D. Feudal rule of smaller Kushanis took over parts of the country, but they were faced with Sassanians from the west and Ephthalites from the north-east, and eventually left the scene to the latter. Around 420 A.D. the Ephthalites were faced with, and, in turn, broke down the influence of the Sassanians on the one hand, and of the Indian Guptas on the other. The beginning of the sixth century A.D. saw the decline of the Ephthalites and their breakdown to feudalism all over Aryana. A wave of Mongolian tribes, under the name of Tokios, came into the picture around 560 A.D. and took over areas on both sides of the Oxus and later made Kunduz, north of the Hindukush, their centre. Kapissa, south of Hindukush, which was in the hands of the Kushani and Ephthalite descendants had by this time created a strong and united kingdom in the area, which spread eastwards to Texala on the opposite banks of the Indus, southwards to Kuram valley, the present Dera Ismail Khan, and westwards to Seistan. The rulers of this kingdom were known as Ratbil. Their reign saw the beginnings of the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan in the 7th century A.D. The last dynasty of Kings prior to Islam, however, were Kabulshahan, known also as Brahmanshahan. They made Kabul their capital. The struggle of these rulers against Islam lasted over two centuries and when they were finally defeated, a significant part of the conqueror's army consisted of forces recruited from amongst the original residents of Afghanistan of that day, Yaqublais and Amrlais Saffarid and their followers, who, finding in Islam a religion compatible with their spirit of indepen- 62

dence and ethics, accepted it very devoutly. The attack of Islam began in the year 645 A.D. and by 654 they had established some foothold in Afghanistan. Merv and Nishapur, Kirman and Zaranj had fallen into their hands. More invasions were being planned when the Afghans, under the leadership of Karan of Herat, attacked and turned the Arabs out of Nishapur. This precipitated the Arab invasion of Afghan soil which they called Khorassan. By 668 the Amawi caliphs of Baghdad had carried their invasion a step forward into Merv in northern Afghanistan. In 672 some fifty thousand Arabs were settled there to preserve the Arab influence which, however, was still limited to Merv and Nishapur. The rest of the country was under the rule of local Afghan leaders. Conditions remained much the same for over a hundred years. Neither the Arabs could complete their invasion of the entire country, nor could the Afghans throw out the foreign forces. In about 750 A.D. Abu Muslim Khorassani, with his 100,000-strong Muslim force, announced his kingdom and the end of Amavid rule. He was instrumental in bringing the Abbasids to power. However he was treacherously murdered by the second Abbasi Caliph. Once again the Arabs advanced into Afghanistan until in 826 Tahir, originally from Herat, upon appointment as governor of Khorassan, proclaimed himself the ruler of Khorassan. He thus became the first independent King of the Muslim Tahirid dynasty, ruling over Balkh, Takharistan, Merv, Herat, Nishapur, Kirman and Seistan. The Tahirids were overthrown by the Saffarids around 880 A.D. The Saffarids were instrumental in extending the religion of Islam and their rule over the greater part of Afghanistan and encouraged the Dari Persian, as against the Arabic language. The Saffarids in turn gave way to the Samanids of Balkh in 920 A.D., and the A colossal Buddha dominating the Bamyan Valley, which dates from the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. Samanids ruled until 1010 A.D. By this time in Ghazni a local government had been established by Alaptagin, a general who at one time was the governor of northern Afghanistan. His son-in-law Subuktagin extended his government to Kabul and from there to the shores of the Indus. Subuktagin secured the favour of the last kings of the Samanids in defending them against internal outbreaks, and thereby succeeded in securing a legal rule for himself in Ghazni. The famous Sultan Mahmood the Ghaznavi was Subuktagin's son, who added Baluchistan, Punjab, Multan, the greater part of Persia and later the dominions of the broken-down house of Saman, to his empire. Ghazni became a great and splendid city, a centre of culture and a cradle of literature and fine arts in his time. The Ghaznavids were followed by the Saljuks, a dynasty of Turks from Ghaz north of the Oxus. Tughral Saljuki, 63

declaring himself King in Nishapur, extended his kingdom from Afghanistan to Mosul and made himself leader of the Holy War against the Christians in Gurjistan and Caucasus. Another important Saljukid king was Jalaludden Malik Shah, who extended his kingdom into Asia Minor and established centres of learning at Herat, Isfahan, Basra and Baghdad. The last king of the dynasty was Sanjar who limited his country to Khorassan and Trans-Oxiana, and who was eventually overthrown by wild hordes of Ghaz Turks. The Saljukis were followed by Khwarazmshahis in northern, and the Ghorids of Ghor between Herat and Kandahar, in southern Afghanistan. Ghor enjoyed locally independent governments under the Suri and later under the Ghaznavid dynasties. Sultan Ala-uddin "Jahan suz", a king of Ghor, revolted against the powerful Ghazni empire, overthrew it in 1152 A.D., burned the beautiful city of Ghazni, earned himself the title of Jahan Suz, "World-burner", and created the Ghori dynasty. The Ghorids followed the pattern of Ghaznavids in conquering India and in propagating Islam there. Sultan Ghiasuddin and Sultan Shahabuddin were the most important kings of the period. The dynasty's rule over India lasted four centuries and was so much focused there that their own country was almost forgotten by them. As a result, with the death of Sultan Shahabuddin, the Khwarazmshahis of northern Afghanistan caused the disintegration of the Ghorid rule in Afghanistan. Alauddin Mohammad, a king of the Khwarazm dynasty, occupied eastern Turkistan, Ghor, Persia, Azarbaijan and then headed against the Abbasids of Baghdad with the hope of making himself the sole Emperor of the Muslim world. But, midway to his goal, he heard the news of the Mongolian invasion of his country. He ordered a hasty return home, only to see the entire territories of trans-Oxiana, Afghanistan and Persia overrun and totally destroyed by the Mongolian hordes of Chengiz (1220-1224 A.D.). After Chengiz, northern Afghanistan remained in the hands of his descendants and the south-eastern part was locally governed. The Chaghatai rule lasted over 160 years. During the period of Mongol rule the Kurts of Herat secured a position of importance to themselves. They were originally from Ghor and in later years also ruled over Maimana, Sabzwar and Seistan. Their rule ended with the advent of Temur Koragan (Tamarlane) who conquered Afghanistan over a period of eight years in the closing years of the 14th century. Temur destroyed what was left of the country after the Chengiz invasion. The reign of his fourth son Shahrukh Mirza, however, made up for a good deal of loss in cultural heritage when he established an almost completely Afghan government in Herat and did his best for the restoration of the country in every aspect. The 100 years of Temurid dynasty in Afghanistan were, for the most part, years of prosperity and progress for the country. This ended in the coming into the picture of Shaibanids and Astrakhanis of trans-Oxiana and of Safavids in Fars. Both sides started a series of incursions against the Temurids who lost their territories to them. MOGULS In 1504, Babar, fifth in descent from Tamerlane, lost Farghana to the Uzbeks and came down the Hindukush to make Kabul the capital of a strong government. From Kabul he invaded India in 1526, overthrowing the Afghan Ludi government of Delhi. His son Hamayun lost the Indian throne to Sher Shah Suri, another Afghan ruler, but this period of Afghan rule was short-lived. The Mogul rule spread not only in India, but also in Kabul, Gandahara and Kashmir. The Afghanistan of those times has many a 64

A view of the historic citadel of Balahissar. (Sadozais) and the Barakzais (Moham- medzais) ensued, which resulted in the further expansion of Ranjit Singh's territories and the eventual disappearance of the Afghan Empire in India. Dost Mohammad Khan Barakzai established himself as the King in Kabul, Ghazni, Jalalabad and Herat. In 1832 the British Government sent an envoy, Sir Alexander Burnes, to Kabul. His mission was "to survey possible routes of advance towards India and to test the friendships the British might form in the region". In 1836, he went there again, this time to the court of Amir Dost Mohammed Khan, on a "commercial mission", shortly to be followed by a military expedition, and Shah Shuja who was installed as a puppet king. The main body of the expeditionary force, faced with unfavourable circumstances, retreated into India in 1841 leaving a garrison, several thousands strong behind to protect Shah Shuja and the British envoys Sir William MacNaughton and Sir Alexander Burnes. Shah Shuja, who had made himself extremely unpopular, found the whole nation in revolt against him. The British forces lent him support against the nationalists which resulted in the loss of his life and that of Burnes. This event is described in the annals of British military history as "an ill-fated expedition that vainly cost the English an army and Shah Shuja his life". This is what is known as the First Anglo-Afghan War. The ensuing reign, for the second time, of Dost Mohammed Khan had nothing historically important about it. He was succeeded by his son, Amir Sher Ali Khan, who attempted to reform the Afghan Army and bring about better social conditions. He refused to allow British agencies to be opened in various parts of the country. He was invited to Ambala for further negotiations, which produced no results. In 1878 the Amir received a Russian mission upon the failure of his earlier negotiations with the British. This was considered by the British to be a hostile act. They sent a strong force against Afghanistan which occupied Quetta and the Kurram valley, and attacked Kabul from three sides. The war ended in victory for the British and Sher Ali Khan retreated into Russia where he died shortly afterwards. The Treaty of Gandumak was imposed upon his son Yaqub-Khan. A British resident was also received by him in Kabul. However, the fall of the same year (1879) saw the Afghan people's attack upon the British garrison at Kabul in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. Yaqub Khan was captured and sent to live in exile in India, but his brother Ayoub Khan put up a gallant fight at Maiwand, close to Kandahar. Amir Abdurrahman was given the leadership of Afghanistan in 1880. He signed a treaty of friendship with the British Government. Tzarist Russia in 1885 occupied Panjdeh from Afghanistan. A series of internal feuds against the Amir's authority in 1888-1892 and external politico - economic pressure brought to bear upon him, left the Amir with no choice but a diplomatic war with the British, concerning that part of the Afghan territory which was taken away from him — the so-called North-West Frontier of India and the territory of Baluchistan, known today as Pakhtoon- istan. His son, Amir Habibullah, also accepted the rule of the British Govern- ment over the external affairs of Afghan- 66

istan and remained neutral during World War I. His reign ended with his assassination near Jalalabad (February, 1919) and the coming to power of his son Amanullah. During Amir Amanullah's reign, Afghanistan's last and successful claim was made for complete independence from foreign rule. The people's demand for freedom resulted in the War of Independence known also as the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The victory at Thal of General Mohammed Nadir (the late Nadir Shah) expedited the recognition by the British of complete Afghan independence and the establishment by Amir Amanullah of diplomatic relations with the outside world. Russia recognised the independent government of Afghanistan and soon other countries such as Turkey, Persia, France, Germany, Italy and several others followed suit. This achieved, the Amir embarked upon reforms aimed at preparing Afghanistan to play her part in international affairs. The result was that he was invited to visit several European countries from which he came back with a determination that "westernisation" should be introduced into Afghanistan almost overnight. His attempt brought some opposition from a section of the population, but the ensuing revolt against him was really hastened by the intrigues of foreign elements rather than a lack of desire on the part of the nation to see Afghanistan develop along modern lines. Amir Amanullah abdicated in 1929 and a ruthless brigand called Habibullah Bacha-i-Saqa came to power for nine months, every day of which meant the loss of a great many lives in Afghanistan. At the time, General Mohammed Nadir, former Afghan Minister in France, who earlier was promoted to the rank of Marshal of the Army and Minister of War, was a sick man in Paris. When he heard of Bacha-i-Saqa's depredations, he immediately set out for Afghanistan. The condition of his health on departure from France was such that a stretcher had to be used to bring him on to the steamer. Once inside Afghanistan, the people rallied around him and helped him to deliver them from the tyranny of the bandit ruler. So great was the impact of his selfless service to the nation, and so ably had he brought about the people's deliverance that on October 16th, 1929, the notables of the country proclaimed him their King at Kabul. King Mohammed Nadir Shah was a direct descendant of Sultan Mohammed Khan, a brother of Amir Dost Mohammed Khan. His first job was to consolidate the country and embark upon progressive measures. One of his most important deeds was the drawing-up of a new Constitution for Afghanistan, which he accomplished with the help of an elected Parliament. Unfortunately in November, 1933, only four years after coming to power, he was assassinated. He was succeeded by his only son, His Majesty Mohammed Zahir Shah, the present King of Afghanistan. The beautiful Sherpur Mosque. 67

THE PEOPLE THE figure of 12 million population for Afghanistan is an estimated one, as the project adopted four years ago for a new and complete census has not yet been completed. The Afghans are entirely Muslim, with the exception of minority groups of Hindus and Jews in various parts of the country, but these number less than one per cent of the population. From this figure, about 60% are composed of the Pakhtoons (Pashtoons). They occupy the provinces of Nangarhar (in the east), Paktya (in the south), Kabul and Kandahar, Herat, Kataghan and Mazar-i-Sharif, too, have Pakhtoons residing in them. The speak Pakhto and, of course, are mostly also able to converse in Persian, the other main language of the country. Next to them in numbers are the Tajiks, Persian-speaking peoples who live in Badakshan, Kataghan, Kabul and Herat. These make up about a quarter of the Afghan population. The rest of the population is made up of the people of Afghan Turkestan, Kirghiz and Turkman, speaking Turkish dialects; Hazaras, living in central mountainous areas and speaking Persian; and Nooristanis speaking various dialects mentioned in the previous chapter. On the whole, Afghans are a pastoral and agricultural people. Whether north or south, east or west, they are mainly busy farming, rearing cattle—sheep, goats and cows—and herding donkeys, horses and camels, mostly for transportation of their products to markets within the country for bartering. There are roughly about two million Pakhto-speaking nomads who travel constantly from summer pastures in Central and northern Afghanistan to their warm winter quarters in the eastern and southern lowlands. Life under somewhat hard geophysical conditions has made the Afghans a hardy people. They are warm-hearted, honest, trusting, generous and tolerant people, and mind their own business so long as they are not interfered with. They work hard and live their own quiet lives. They learn fast and use what they have learnt for the good of their society. They are slowly becoming aware of the limitations of their life as compared to that of the more advanced nations of the world, and are therefore increasingly determined to bridge the gap in material comforts which exists between them and the rest of the world. This calls for more hard work and more united effort on the part of the nation, and they readily accept their task for the attainment of a high degree of progress. They wholeheartedly support all plans and projects which are to bring them and their country more prosperity and a higher standard of life. They are excedingiy patriotic and this is a tradition with the Afghans. They have an intense love for independence and would like all nations of the world to enjoy it without interference by anyone. Their love of freedom and self-respect is described in these words by the famous Afghan thinker and philosopher of modern times, Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani: "Self-respect is the guiding light of the Pakhtoons and they prefer death rather than to lose their self-respect by passing under the rule and yoke of others . . ." Physically the Afghans are tall and well-built. Their complexion is light tan. They have dark hair, usually dark eyes, somewhat long heads and long straight noses. Other types also exist in small numbers. They love the open air and are fond of sports, which range from wrestling and weight-throwing to hunting and marksmanship. Their favourite games, too, show their trait of toughness. One of 68

Inside a grape drying room. Nomads and their animals march north to the Hindukush valley.

these games is called Buzkashi, a game of agility, wit and supreme horsemanship. Divided into two teams consisting of 50 to 2,000 riders, they endeavour to pick up the carcase of a calf from a fixed place, gallop with it a distance of one to five miles and throw it back near the original spot. Their tradition of hospitality is well-known. For a guest there is no end to their kindness. As one famous author puts it: "One could go to any Afghan home and be warmly received. He would get the best food the family had to offer. The house would be his home, though he were a total stranger. If there was only one room, it would be turned over to him..." Their national code of Pakhtanwali (Pashtanwali), based on righteousness, parallels the Islamic teaching of which they are devout followers. Many individual and tribal problems are solved in accordance with the unwritten rules of this code. They are a proud people, their pride born of their heritage of thousands of years. An Iranian writer has this to say of the Pakhtoon's national pride: "If you ask even a poor Afghan who is dressed in rags and is your paid servant who he is, he will answer with pride that he is a Pashtoon. From his expression and the tone of voice you can see that he is proud of being a Pashtoon. His firmness of voice and his dominating gestures make you feel that he is the master and you are his servant." Buzkashi—the game with hundreds of horsemen.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE THE recorded cultural heritage of the Afghans dates back to the time when their country was known as Aryana. The Rigveda, "Sacred Knowledge", the most ancient book of the Aryans, was for the most part composed in the valleys of southern Hindukush around 3500 B.C. Rigveda, the first of four collections of hymns, prayers and Aryan tales, mentions various geographical names like Kobha, Gandahara, Pactya, Gomati, Kromo, Swasto, which correspond to names in south and south-eastern Afghanistan today. The contents of the Rigveda are not only descriptive of the Afghan soil, but also give a detailed picture of the physical and spiritual characteristics of the Vedic tribes of Afghanistan. It can be said that the Afghan tales of valour, their social traditions, moral and spiritual values, folklore, folk songs and folk dances have their origin in Vedic times and Vedic mentality, and in the course of several thousand years, have been modified and have come down to us in their present form. The Vedic language has been considered the oldest known Aryan language south of the Hindukush. A section of Avesta called Gath, too, speaks of the ancient habitat of the Aryans and of the peoples of Aryana, though its period is considered to be between 1000-500 B.C. The language and contents of the Gaths, moreover, show traces of similarity to Veda. Around the year 1000 B.C. Zaratrushtra appeared in Bakhdi (Bactria or Balkh) and spread his doctrine of monotheism and Good and Evil and the freedom of the will to choose between Good and Evil, between Right and Wrong. The Greeks brought their culture with them around 320 B.C., which blended with the Aryan culture over a period of 200 years. Today we have relics of this period in various forms of art, termed Greco-Bactrian. Greek script was also introduced from which later the Greco-Kushanid characters developed. Greek medicine, astronomy, mathematics and geometry spread in Aryana and got mixed with literary and social principles of Bactria and Aryana. Buddhism, too, flourished in ancient Aryana around 250 B.C., and missionaries from there went far and wide to preach the message of Buddha. The contact between the Greek and Buddhist culture produced yet another significant trend in the land of the Aryans. Effects of Greek sculpture found their way into the works of the Gandahara school of art, whose Buddhas began to show resemblances to Greek gods. The two huge statues of Buddha (120 ft. and 175 ft. tall) hewn from the cliffs of Bamyan, some distance north of Kabul, are of particular significance to students of history and tourists at large. The late Aryans' own script was actually a modified version of Aramaic script. The latter had appeared in Aryana around 800 B.C. A few samples of this script are to be found today in Kabul Museum. Around 300 B.C. Kharoshti, another script, made its appearance in Aryana and of this there are several samples on metal and clay vessels and slabs of stone. It was written from right to left and also appears to have been used by business people as well as the clergy but perhaps was not the official language. Next to that was Parakrit, another Aryan script used around the same time as Kharoshti and under the same conditions. Gandahara, in the meantime, had also cradled the Sanskrit language. During Kanishka, the great Kushani emperor, Sanskrit was given attention it had not received until then. It soon became a language rich in resources and wide and varied in use. Kanishka encouraged the arts during his time and gathered many a poet, philosopher and learned person around him. Parsawa 71

and Wazomitra, both from Gandahara, were his literary councillors. Mantanza and Gabharana were two of the many learned people from Gandahara of his time. Buddhist temples were the main centres of art and literature. Hundreds of students and learned people were conducting their studies in various fields, composing great poetry, writing books and doing translation work in the temples. Writing was done on wood blocks, which were thus prone to destruction. Some writing of this period was found in 1930 near the smaller statue at Bamian and it is believed the author is Aswagosha, a poet at the court of Kanishka. Around the third century B.C. another tongue, of the same family of languages as the above, came into the picture on the shores of the Oxus and was called Parsawi. This tongue developed and spread to the western regions of Khorassan, while it was still being spoken at its original source. It was from this that the Dari Persian developed, which is one of the two main languages of Afghanistan today. The first known poet in Persian was Hanzala Badghisi (Badghis being a district in western Afghanistan). Many great works in this language have come into being in Afghanistan, the most famous being the Shahnama of Ferdawsi of Tus, which was written during the reign of Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi. The origin of Pakhto, the more prevalent of the two main languages of Afghanistan, is somewhat obscure. A close study of it shows resemblances to Parakrit and to Zend, the language of the Avesta. Parakrit is one of the languages of the Indo-Aryan group of languages, as opposed to Zend, which is in the Indo-Iranian branch. Pakhto thus seems to be an independent language alongside the Indo-Aryan and Indo-Iranian languages, and to have evolved, with the others, from a mother tongue—the original tongue of the Aryans—prior to their migration south and west. Pakhtoons are the people who speak Pashto (Pakhto). The words Pakhtoon and Pakhto are related to the name of Bactria, or Bakhtar, Bakhdi or Pakhdi (the modern Balkh), the origin of Zend, the language of the Avesta. Herodotus mentions the Pakhtoons as Paktyes and calls them a branch of the Aryans inhabiting the country of Paktia. Other dialects spoken in Afghanistan are as follows: Baluchi, Shughni, Roshani, Wakhi, Inshkashni, Ormuzi, Parachi, Kati, Waigali, Pashai, Uzbeki, Turkmani, etc. The advent of Islam brought with it the rich Arabic language and Afghanistan, accepting the religion, turned its attention to Arabic culture and literature. It is a known fact that services rendered by Muslims from Afghanistan to the World of Islam were diverse. Many religious leaders rose from Afghanistan to spread Islam eastward and southward and even to contribute in propagating Islamic thought and philosophy westward. Imam Azam ben Sabit, Imam Ahmad ben Hambal Marwazee, Mohammed ben Keram Zaranjee, Maulana Jalaluddin Balkhi, Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani are but a few who may be named in this respect. Arabic literature, too, was served by such eminent Afghan literary figures as Bishar ben Bard Takharistanee Abu-Ata-i-Sindee, Abul Fazl Ahmed and many others. Contributions were also made to Arabic literature in medicine, astronomy, and astrology by Afghan scholars. During the Islamic period, the place of sculpture was taken by developments in architecture, calligraphy, painting, illustrating, illuminating, etc., of which today there are many brilliant examples in various parts of Afghanistan and in museums everywhere. Amir Khalil, also known as Ghiasuddin, Ruhullah Mirak and Behzad Herawi are the most famous illuminators and artists of the ninth century in Afghanistan. 72

CONSTITUTION In the name of Allah the most Merciful THE CONSTITUTION OF AFGHANISTAN Fundamental Laws of the Government of Afghanistan Article 1. The religion of Afghanistan is the sacred religion of Islam, and the official and popular school of religion is the Hanafite School. The King of Afghan istan must be a Hanafi Muslim by belief. Followers of other religions, such as Hindus and Jews, residing in Afghanistan also enjoy protection provided they do not violate the ordinary rules of conduct and propriety. Article 2. The Afghan Government enjoys complete independence in the administration of its internal and external affairs. All places and parts of the country constitute a single entity under the command and exalted direction of His Majesty the King, and no distinction is made between different parts of the country. Article 3. The city of Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan, and all residents of the country are equal in the eyes of the Government. The residents of the city of Kabul have no special privileges as compared with those of other cities and towns of Afghanistan. Article 4. The official flag of Afghan istan is black, red and green, and bears in the centre an ear of wheat, an altar and a pulpit. RIGHTS OF THE KING Article 5. In appreciation of the devo tion shown and services rendered by His Majesty Ghazi Mohammad Nadir Shah Afghan, in obtaining the independence and deliverance of the land of Afghan istan, and in the uprooting of oppression and despotism, the Afghan nation in general has recognised His Majesty as a fit and worthy King of his country and has accepted him as such with the greatest esteem and respect. His Majesty the King at the time of his accession to the throne of independent Afghanistan, publicly undertook, in the presence of the Repre sentatives and Nobility of Afghanistan, to carry on the administration of his royal government in accordance with the dic tates of the expounders of the sacred Shariat of the Holy Phophet (Peace be upon him) and the Hanafi belief, and the Constitution of the country, and to regard the preservation of the independence of Afghanistan as his most important duty. to be true to his nation and country, and not to violate the above-mentioned stipulations. The noble Afghan nation, therefore, agrees that the Crown of Afghanistan will be transferred to the family of this King, desirer of the progress of the country, and that succession to the throne will be in accordance with the selection of His Majesty and the people of Afghanistan. Note: By family is meant eldest son and brother. Article 6. The King of Afghanistan, before his accession to the throne, shall make and sign the following declaration in the chamber of the National Assembly. and in the presence of the members: "I swear by Almighty God and the sacred Quran, knowing that God the 78

Glorious is omnipresent and omniscient, to rule according to the Shariat of Mohammed (peace be upon him) and the Constitution of the country (and to strive) for the protection of the glorious religion of Islam, the independence of Afghanistan and the rights of the nation, and for the defence, progress and prosperity of the country. So help me God through the blessings of the sacred spiritual force of the blessed saints (the approval of God be upon them)." Article 7. In Friday sermons the name of the King will be mentioned, and the coin of the realm will bear his name, and other rights as follows will be vested in the King: "Bestowal of rank and office; award of honours; appointment of the Prime Minister; sanction of the appointment, transfer and dismissal of Ministers; assent to measures passed by the National Assembly; proclamation of, enforcement and protection of the same; protection and carrying out of the Shariat and civil laws; command of the military forces of Afghanistan in general; declaration of war and conclusion of peace and treaties generally; remission and reduction of punishment in general according to the Shariat law." Article 8. An allotment for the expenses of the King will be included in the Budget of the country. GENERAL RIGHTS OF AFGHAN SUBJECTS Article 9. All persons residing in the country of Afghanistan are called Afghan subjects without any distinction of creed or religion. Afghan citizenship is acquired or lost in accordance with the citizenship laws. Article 10. All Afghan subjects, although required to observe the injunctions and prohibitions of their Government in religious and political matters, are free to enjoy all their legal rights. Article 11. There is no interference with personal liberty. No one may be imprisoned or punished without an order in accordance with the Shariat or the appropriate laws. The practice of slavery is forbidden in Afghanistan. No male or female may keep any person as a slave. Article 12. Afghan subjects are free, within the limits of the appropriate laws, in all matters relating to trade, industry and agriculture. Article 13. All Afghan subjects, in accordance with the Shariat and Government laws, are equal in their rights and the country's duties. Article 14. Any Afghan subject, according to his ability and capacity, is taken into Government service as required. Article 15. In Afghanistan the movable and immovable property of everyone is protected. In the event of any immovable property being required by the Government in the public interests, the value of it will be paid to the owner according to Shariat law and the special law concerned, before it is taken over. Article 16. The residence of every Afghan subject is safe from every sort of interference. No official or other person may enter into a private residence without an order under Shariat law or the laws of the land. Article 17. Confiscation of both movable and immovable property is forbidden, with the exception of that belonging to persons residing abroad who are making propaganda or intrigues against the Afghan Government. Article 18. Levies of money and forced labour are prohibited, except during time of war. 74

Article 19. The rack and other kinds of torture are completely abolished. No punishment may be inflicted which is not prescribed under the laws of the land and the Sacred Shariat law. Article 20. Primary education for the children of Afghan subjects is compulsory. Article 21. In Afghanistan Islamic teaching is unrestricted. Every Afghan subject is permitted to impart Islamic religious instruction. Foreigners, however, with the exception of those engaged to teach arts, industries and foreign languages, are not permitted to open and conduct schools in Afghanistan. Article 22. The public schools in Afghanistan are under the supervision of the Government, so that the education and culture imparted by these institutions may, without infringing the articles of the Islamic faith, provide the benefits which accrue from the study of science, art and industry. But there will be no interference with principles of education which are concerned with the faith and religion of the "Ahl-i-Zimma" (followers of other faiths, living under the protection of Islam). Article 23. The Press and newspapers of Afghanistan, such as are not against religion, are under no restrictions save as defined in the special law relating to them. The right of publishing newspapers, etc., belongs to the Afghan Government and subjects. The entry into Afghanistan of foreign newspapers which do not contain matter against religion and the policy of the Afghan Government is unrestricted. Article 24. In the settlement of personal disputes and other matters falling within the province of the courts of justice and official departments, persons who are not satisfied with the decision and order of such organisations may appeal to a higher authority, up to the Minister concerned, and, if still not satisfied, to the Prime Minister and His Majesty the King. Article 25. Revenues and taxes are levied in accordance with separate laws. Article 26. Nothing may be recovered from anyone beyond what is laid down in the Government laws. SHURA-I-MILLI (National Assembly) Formation of the Body Article 27. The National Assembly came into being at the instance of His Majesty the King with the approval of the Jirga, held at Kabul in the year 1309 A.H. Article 28. This body is solely composed of individuals who have a joint share in the social and political affairs of Afghanistan, i.e., they are representatives of all the inhabitants of the country. Article 29. The National Assembly is composed of members elected from the province of Kabul and other provinces and districts, and assembles at the capital. Article 30. The number of members of the National Assembly is stated in the election laws. Article 31. The first session commences from the opening day of the National Assembly and it is laid down that new elections will be held at the expiry of each term of three years. If voters wish to re-elect the same member they are at liberty to do so. Article 32. Session and recess times of the National Assembly will be laid down in the National Assembly Law. If during a recess the Government deems it necessary to have some bill passed, this will be approved by the Government as a temporary measure, and brought into force by His Majesty's Command. If this bill is approved by the National Assembly when it reassembles, it will be added to the laws of the country. Otherwise it may be modified or rejected by the aforesaid National Assembly. Article 33. A meeting of the National Assembly can also be summoned during a 75

recess to consider and settle important questions and, should it be impossible to call a general meeting on account of the urgency of the matter to be discussed, the members for Kabul and neighbouring districts only will hold a meeting of the National Assembly. Article 34. Matters at the National Assembly may be discussed when at least half of the members are present, and a decision will be reached on the basis of a unanimous vote or on a majority of votes. Article 35. The National Assembly will, at the opening of each session, present an address to His Majesty the King, who will make a reply. Article 36. Members attending the Assembly for the first time will take and sign the following oath: Article 37. Form of Oath: "We, the undersigned, on account of the confidence vested in us by the nation and the Govern-ment, swear by God the Great and the sacred Quran that we will remain true to our nation and Government". Article 38. Members of the National Assembly are at full liberty to express their views before the Assembly and no objection of any sort can be raised against them. Article 39. All debates of the National Assembly, since the results thereof will become effective and public, will be open to representatives of the Press and visitors, who, however, in accordance with the law of the National Assembly, have the right to attend and listen only. DUTIES Article 40. The National Assembly will manage its internal affairs, such as elec-tion of President, Vice-President and secretarial staff, and framing of rules of debate, etc., as laid down in the National Assembly law. Article 41. All bills and measures, the framing and existence of which are con-sidered essential for strengthening the foundations of the Government and regu-lating the affairs of the country, will be passed by the National Assembly. Article 42. Adjustment of financial matters, rejection or adoption of taxes and revenues, and the Government's new financial undertaking will be subject to the approval of the National Assembly. Article 43. One of the duties of the National Assembly is to examine and pass the national Budget, after it has been prepared and submitted by the Finance Ministry. Article 44. New laws will be brought into force, and existing laws amended or repealed only by the National Assembly, whether the necessity for such action has been initiated by the Assembly, itself or by Ministers. Article 45. Grants of concessions, the formation of companies and public firms of every kind will be sanctioned by the National Assembly. Article 46. Contracts, agreements and grants of concessions (monopolies) whether relating to trade, industry, agri-culture, etc., and whether Afghan or foreign, will be concluded with the approval of the National Assembly. Article 47. Any Government loan, whether from within the country or from without, shall be secured with due information to, and approval of the National Assembly. Article 48. Extensions of public highways and (building of) railways, whether paid for by the Government or Afghan or foreign firms or companies, are completely subject to the approval of the National Assembly. Article 49. The National Assembly has the right, whenever necessary, to submit a petition to the King. The petition, how-ever, will in all circumstances be sub-mitted by a deputation composed of the President and six members elected from amongst themselves. The Ministry of Court will arrange the time for such an audience. Article 50. Ministers may attend the sit-tings of the National Assembly to hear debates. They have also the right, having 76

obtained the permission of the President, to explain and elucidate matters (under discussion). Seats are reserved in the Assembly Chamber for Ministers. Article 51. Whenever the necessity for any new law is felt, a proposal for it is initiated by the Ministry concerned and put before the National Assembly by a Minister or the Prime Minister, and will come into force after it has passed the National Assembly and received the assent of His Majesty the King. Article 52. In case of need, the President may, either by his own motion, or on the proposal of ten members of the Assembly, or that of a Minister, call a secret session, from which the Press and visitors will be barred. He may also arrange a secret meeting composed of certain selected members, to which other members will not have the right of entry. But the outcome of the deliberations of such a committee or meeting will be made official only when the matter is discussed in the presence of three-quarters of the selected members, and approved by a majority of votes. If the measure is not agreed upon in the secret meeting, it will not be announced to the Assembly and the latter will not discuss it. Article 53. In the event of a secret meeting being convened on the motion of the President of the Assembly, he is authorised to publish all or as much of its deliberations as may be suitable. But if the meeting is called at the instance of a Minister, the disclosure of the subject matter will be contingent upon the permission of the same Minister. Article 54. Ministers have the right to withdraw any measure, however much it may have been discussed by the Assembly; but if a measure is introduced by a Minister at the desire of the Assembly, withdrawal of such measure is contingent upon the consent of the Assembly. Article 55. A bill introduced by a Minister and rejected by the Assembly will be returned with the latter's observations. The bill will again be read in the Assembly when the Minister has accepted or refuted the observations of the Assembly. Article 56. When rejecting or accepting a bill, the members of the National Assembly will give clear and explicit statement of their views, and no one may seek to encourage or threaten them. Members of the Assembly will indicate their approval or disapproval of a bill by visible means, such as black or white (voting) paper, and in such a manner as to be obvious to Press representatives and visitors. INTRODUCTION OF MEASURES BY THE ASSEMBLY Article 57. Every measure introduced by a member of the Assembly may be debated, provided that at least a quarter of the members approve its discussion. The measure will then be forwarded to the President in writing, and the latter may, if he so chooses first refer it to a committee for investigation. Article 58. A group of members of the National Assembly, selected by the rest of the members, approved by the President, and called a "Committee" will, in the first instance, carefully investigate measures brought before the National Assembly, and submit to the Assembly through the President, such matters as require discussion, with a statement of its own views. The measure will then, with the permission of the President, be discussed by the Assembly. Proposals which are incomplete or do not necessitate the discussion of the Assembly, will be returned by the President to the Ministry concerned, with a statement of his reason for doing so. A committee will consist of at least ten persons. Article 59. A Minister who is interested in a bill admitted for discussion in the 77

The imposing Maiwand Monu- ment in Maiwand Wat. PROVINCIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE Article 71. In the chief town of each Governor's Province, whether Naib-ul-Hukumat, Hukumat-i-Ala or Hukumat-i-Kalan, an advisory Committee will be set up. Article 72. The mode of selection, number of members and duties of this committee are set forth in a separate law passed for the purpose. DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF MINISTERS Article 73. The administration of the country is carried out by Ministers, who are selected by the Prime Minister and approved by His Majesty. Article 74. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Cabinet, and in his absence the Minister in charge of the Prime Minister's office will perform the duties of Chairman. Article 75. Only a Muslim Afghan subject is eligible for appointment as Minister. Article 76. Ministers are responsible to the National Assembly as regards the policy of the Government in general, and of the Ministry under their charge in particular. His Majesty the King is, therefore, free from all responsibility. Article 77. The responsibility of Ministers and the policy relating to them will be fixed by law. Article 78. Ministers dispose of matters within their powers, and submit those beyond their powers to the Prime Minister, who deals with them up to the limit of his authority, and submits such cases as may be beyond his powers for the orders of His Majesty the King. Article 79. When a Minister is suspected of an offence connected with his official duties he will be tried at the Diwan-i-Ali (Supreme Court). Charges against a Minister in his private capacity will be referred to the Courts of Justice as in the case of other subjects. Article 80. A Minister under accusation 79

lion, tending to the disturbance of public peace, be discovered in any part of the country, the Government has the power to adopt measures necessary to put down the insurrection and restore peace. Article 105. The formation of Municipal Councils and their duties are governed by a special law. ARMY Article 106. Recruitment in the army, military duties, rights and promotion are governed by special laws. Article 107. No member of the army may be deprived of his pay or rank other- wise than as laid down in the laws. Article 108. Foreign subjects, with the exception of doctors and military instructors, are not accepted in military employment. MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES Article 109. Privacy of correspondence is one of the rights of the people. Letters and other communications from the public, on which postage has been paid, may not be opened by any office or at any other place, except under an order of inspection from a court, but must be delivered closed to the addressee. Article 110. Whenever a verbal order is given to a Minister or a civil servant by His Majesty or the Prime Minister, he should obtain such order in writing, and signed by the King or Prime Minister. Dated the 8th Aqrab, 1310 (31st October, 1931) ADDENDUM Article 1. Officials of the Foreign Ministry, military officers and such Afghan students as are sent abroad to be educated at Government expense are not allowed to marry foreign subjects. Article 2. It is forbidden for foreign subjects to own land in Afghanistan. Foreign Legations in Afghanistan will, in accordance with agreements concluded with their respective countries, be accorded reciprocal treatment. Dated 12th Sunbula, 1311 (2nd September, 1932) Amendment of Article 2 of Addendum. Foreign subjects in Afghanistan have no right to own property. Foreign Embassies and Consulates in Afghanistan will, in accordance with mutual agreements, be accorded reciprocal treatment. Dated 24th Asad, 1317 (15th August, 1938) Amendment of Article 51. Whenever the need for a law is felt in a Ministry or independent Government Department, a bill is prepared by that Ministry or Department and studied by the Council of Ministers and upon approval, is forwarded to both Houses. The approval of the two Houses and the Royal Assent make the bill into a law. Shahi Gardens, Jalalabad. 82

GOVERNMENT ACCORDING to the Constitution of Afghanistan, the King appoints the Prime Minister, who then forms a Cabinet. This last, on the approval of the monarch, is made responsible for the various governmental departments. The National Assembly, composed of 173 elected members, has power to check the activities of the various Ministries, to approve or disapprove the Government's budget, and to ratify all bills presented to it with or without amendments, or to reject them. When the National Assembly is not in session any Government Bill becomes temporarily effective if and when ratified by the King. However, it remains subject to confirmation by Parliament at its next session. All Bills have to pass the two Houses. Judicial power rests with three Islamic courts—the Primary, Appeals and Supreme. To examine offences committed by civil servants in the day-to-day execution of government duties there are special courts. The following Ministries are entrusted Premier Nehru replies to the Afghan Premier's welcome address. with particular government duties: National Defence, Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice, Finance, Education, Health, Communications, Commerce, Public Works, Agriculture, Mines and Industries, Press and Information, Tribal Affairs and Planning. In Afghanistan there are 15 provinces in all, the head of each being appointed by the Prime Minister, and approved by the King. Various minor aspects of government work in each province are looked after by directors appointed at Kabul by the Ministry concerned, e.g. a provincial Director of Education is appointed by the Ministry of Education and carries on his duties under the immediate supervision of the Governor of the province, and forwards progress reports to the Ministry of Education. The vigilant Afghan Government have undertaken carefully calculated measures to better the country and the prosperity of the people, and today the nation enjoys many new facilities. FOREIGN RELATIONS Alongside the national measures for the welfare of the population, the Afghan Government have defined a very clear-cut policy for themselves as regards relations with other governments and nations. It is one of mutual respect, equality, non-aggression and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other States. Neutrality is a traditional policy of the Afghans. They love freedom of judgment and action in their own matters, and would like to see such freedom universally regarded as the natural and legal right of all peoples and nations of the world. Before the outbreak of World War I, Afghanistan participated in the Disarmament Conference, and in 1935, joined the League of Nations and other international conferences of the time, and remained faithful to their peaceful prin-

His Majesty the King of Afghanistan receiving President Eisenhower at Bagram airport. His Majesty the King smiling while President Eisenhower and Mrs. John Eisenhower are presented with bouquets by children at Bagram airport. President Eisenhower and His Majesty the King driving through the streets of Kabul. His Majesty the King speaking during a luncheon held at Chilsutoon Palace in honour of President Eisenhower. 84

Sardar Mohammed Naim, Afghan Foreign Minister (right); Premier Khrushchev (centre); and Mr. Gromyko, U.S.S.R. Foreign Minister, having a chat. His Majesty the King and Premier N. Khrushchev a few minutes after the Soviet Prime Minister had alighted from his plane at Bagram airport. The two Premiers toasting the health of His Majesty the King of Afghanistan. 85

Realising the significance of personal contacts in the establishment of friendly relationships among governments and nations, the leaders of Afghanistan have received leaders from, and in turn have visited, several foreign countries. These include the State visits to Afghanistan of Mr. Nixon, President Gamal Nasser, Mr. N. S. Khrushchev, Premier Chou en Lai of the People's Republic of China, Mr. Adnan Menderes of Turkey, Mr. U Nu of Burma, Mr. Iskander Mirza and Mr. Suhrawardy of Pakistan, Mr. Voroshilov of the Soviet Union, Mr. Nehru of India, Mr. Eisenhower and Mr. Krushchev for the second time, the King of Nepal and several other leading personalities of the world. His Majesty the King has been invited and visited Turkey, the U.S.S.R., Pakistan and India. Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud has been invited and visited Egypt, Pakistan, the U.S.S.R., Burma, India, Turkey, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, People's Republic of China, the U.S.A. and Iran. Sardar Mohammed Daoud and His Majesty the Shahinshah of Iran. His Majesty the King with His Majesty King Mahindra of Nepal.