sent an official to discuss the matter with Pakistani officials in Karachi. The Paki-stani Government however, created a number of obstacles against international regulations and the Transit Agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Ministry has frequently received reports of goods being lost or misplaced on their way to Afghanistan, and discrimination between Afghan and Pakistani mer-chandise, which is contrary to the first article of the above-mentioned agreement, takes place. This means that railway trucks are not made readily available for Afghan goods and they get left at the stations for long periods of time. Contrary to the fifth article of the agreement adequate documents are not provided for the Afghan merchandise and this causes much delay. Further, Afghan goods are not allowed to stay in the loading stations longer than 24 hours and so they are coming under demurrage. which costs millions of Afghanis each year. Contrary to the fourth article of the agreement, Afghan transit goods are charged all sorts

of taxes, such as sales, customs fees, addi-tional stamp tax, refugee tax, doorkeeper tax and the like. Each Afghan lorry is charged 12 Pakistani Rupees by the Paki-stani Political Agent at the frontier. This has caused many complaints in the Afghanistan economic and trading circles. The Ministry of Commerce has tried all channels of negotiation with the Paki-stanis ranging from direct talks with officials to correspondence though the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Afghan delegation sent to Pakistan to draw their attention to the actual situation which is a flagrant contradiction of the transit agreement returned to Kabul without achieving any result due to the lack of co-operation of the Pakistani authorities. But on the other hand the transit of Afghan goods through the Soviet Union has run more smoothly than in previous years and the results are very encouraging.
In order to improve the forwarding and delivery activities in the river ports the Ministry of Commerce has opened a Port Trust within the Ministry with branch

Early spring brings millions of these flowers in northern Afghanistan.


offices in each river port, such as Kizil
Kala, Klift, Tashguzar and Torguhundi.
These branch offices deal with forwarding
and delivering Afghan goods and send
regular reports to their headquarters.
The following table shows the amount of
goods in metric tons handled by the Port
Trust Authorities:

Name of Port   Exports   Imports
Kizil Kala ... 10,245    3,653
Kleft ...       6,902   11,067
Toshguzar ...  11,905    3,838
Torguhundi ...  7,089   28,679

To encourage local companies in pro-
duction, the Ministry of Commerce
granted a credit of 50,000,000 Afghanis to
the Cotton Combine of Kunduz, Amin
Ltd., of Mazarisharif, Machinery Manu-
facturers of Mazarisharif, Sakhi Manufac-

ture of Mazarisharif, and the Industrial
Company of Mazarisharif. 64,000,000
Afghanis were allotted to wool exporters.
54,000,000 went to the Wool Exporting
Company and 6,000,000 to the Fruit
Exporting Company, which had recently
obtained permission to export wool. A
credit of 50,000,000 Afganis was granted
to the Karakul Export Company to buy
more skins for export purposes and thus
help the Kakakul breeders.
In order to make Afghan merchandise
comply with international standards an
Export Committee was set up to find ways
of raising the standard of goods. The
committee recommended up-to-date train-
ing for officials concerned and a group of
young men dealing with sorting and
standardization was sent abroad to attend
a special seminar.
During the fourth year of the Plan the
following new companies were created
which amalgamated scattered assets to
make for better organisation:

Name of Company   Capital in Afghanis  Type of Company   Field of Activity
Construction Co.  ...      3,000,000      Joint Stock       Construction
Nashir Ltd.       ...      1,000,000      Limited           Import/Export
Nouri Ltd.        ...      1,000,000      Limited           Import/Export
Salimi Ltd.       ...      1,000,000      Limited           Import/Export
Sadozaye Ltd.     ...      1,000,000      Limited           Import/Export
Abdul Kayoum Ltd. ...      2,000,000      Limited           Import/Export

The Ministry of Commerce encouraged
the formation of nineteen more transport
companies with a total capital of
45,908,462 Afghanis to improve transport
within the country.
The Research Department of the
Ministry of Commerce, in co-operation
with local and foreign experts adopted the
international code for statistics. Customs
houses throughout the country have been
keeping the Research Department sup-
plied with figures pertaining to the import
and export of goods and the Department
is planning to publish an annual on
import/export statistics and a quarterly
to show the balance of Afghanistan's
foreign trade.
The Department of Regulations of the
Ministry prepared draft statutes for the
registration of trade marks and methods
of dealing with commercial disputes,
which will become law when they have
been approved by the Council of
Ministers and ratified in Parliament.
Last but not least was the establishment
of Chambers of Commerce in Nangarhar,
Kataghan, Shibirghan provinces, to
improve commercial intercourse between
provinces and bring methods of trading
up-to-date.

50


PUBLIC HEALTH

The Ministry of Public Health took a
number of important steps during the
fourth year of the Plan to improve the
standard of health throughout the country
by providing more hospitals and clinics
etc. The Department of Publications of
the Ministry published several posters and
pamphlets on smallpox, malaria and
typhus which were distributed among the
public. The mobile cinema unit of the
Ministry showed a number of films on
public health which were seen by over
40,000 people in Bibi Mahro, Logar, and
Nangarhar. The radio health programme
was continued and improved and local
newspapers published articles on certain
health topics prepared by the Department
of Publications. Another improvement
was the transformation of the former
monthly "Roghtya Zairay" into a
weekly periodical dealing exclusively with
preventive medicine. The monthly
"Roghtya" was also improved and now
deals exclusively with curative medicine.
Besides the publication of posters and
supplements on special occasions such
as "Children's Day", "Health Day" and
"Red Crescent Week" the Department
of Publications opened a library for the
general public to study books on health
and hygeine.

The Department of X-rays and
Laboratories opened X-ray centres in
Maimana, Ghazni, Parwan, Mazarisharif
and Khost.

The Department of Dentistry imported
equipment for a dental clinic in Kabul,
opened a clinic in Maimana and others in
other provinces will soon be opened.
More students graduated from the School
of Dentistry and began work in various
provinces.

The Department of International
Relations made arrangements for the
following officials of the Ministry of

Public Health to represent Afghanistan
at international meetings and conferences:
Dr. M. A. Fakiri, Director of the
Central Health Bureau, led the Afghan
delegation to the 12th Regional Confer-
ence of the W.H.O. in South East Asia
which was convened in Ceylon; Dr. A. G.
Afzal, Director General of Health Affairs
went to the French Industrial Exhibition
in Teheran to make a study of the new
medical instruments exhibited on the
the invitation of the French Government;
Dr. A. Rahim, Deputy Minister of Public
Health represented Afghanistan in the
25th Executive Council of the W.H.O. in
Geneva; and finally Dr. A. G. Afzal and
Dr. Fakiri participated in the 13th
General Assembly of the World Health
Organization in Geneva.

Also arrangements were made by the
Department of International Relations for
a number of high ranking W.H.O. officials
including Dr. Mani, the Regional Director
for South East Asia, to visit Afghanistan
and advise local authorities on relevant
matters.

The Ministry of Public Health sent the
following doctors abroad during the
fourth year of the plan to further their
studies in the following fields:

Dr. S. M. Sayedi to study epidemiology
in the United States, Dr. M. Azam to
study malarialogy in Lebanon, Dr. A. G.
Safi to study clinical sciene in Britain, Dr.
G. R. Hoshmand to study entomology in
the Phillipines, Dr. A. G. Ahmadi to study
sanitation in Lebanon, Dr. M. A.
Mujaddedi and Dr. M. Azam to study
Bacteriology in France, Dr. M. Isa and Dr.
M. Karim Husseini to study malarialogy
in India under the fellowships granted by
the W.H.O. Also Dr. M. S. Tawfik and
Dr. M. Ali both X-ray experts, Dr. H. A.
Shifa, and Dr. M. Akram, both gynae-
cologists, went to West Germany to

51


further their studies in their special fields on the fellowships granted by the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany.

The Department of Vaccines Preparation opened a two-month refresher course which was attended by boys and girls concerned with the preparation of vaccines.

The graduates of the schools of midwifery, dispensary, and sanitarians were employed in various establishments in the capital and in the provinces. Also new doctors were sent to the hospitals in Kataghan, Mazarisharif, Nangarhar, Badakhshan, Maimana, and Ghazni provinces to cope with the growing demand for qualified personnel.

The Maternity Hospital installed new equipment allotted separate apartments to children born prematurely and expectant mothers who need operations. Also arrangements were made for more refrigeration plant in the hospital.

The Women's Sanitorium opened a well-equipped laboratory and considerably extended its lavatory facilities.

The Department of Anti-Malaria Campaign sent four graduates of the Faculty of Medicine abroad to study malarialogy, opened a preliminary course on malaria which was attended by graduates of seven and eight grades picked up for this purpose, surveyed the remote areas to complete the country's map in connection with malaria, and employed three new doctors who had completed their studies abroad. Also the Department recruited 156 new students to be given special training in the field of malaria under the supervision of local and foreign experts. They will later join the combat squads working in various parts of the country.

In order to carry out the anti-malaria campaign more effectively the Department

equipped fourteen units each with a malaria expert, two malaria inspectors, one entomologist, four assistants, sixteen trained workers, and various sorts of spraying equipment.

The Department of Epidemics Control opened three courses on epidemics: one in the Vaccine Institute, one in Kandahar, and the third in Nangarhar. The latter sent its graduates in the first part of the fourth year of the Plan. The small-pox epidemic which broke out in Nangarhar was vigorously fought against by the local vaccination squads who were reinforced by more qualified personnel from the Ministry and vaccinated 172,076 people. They saved many lives in the province.

The graduates of the epidemics course in Kandahar vaccinated 91,125 people and the campaign was 98% successful. The local Directorate of Public Health was provided with vaccines enough for 705,000 people including infants. Likewise the Department of Epidemics Control provided the local health centres with vaccines enough for thousands of people against cholera, typhus, and other diseases and sent doctors to a number of provinces where the occurrence of certain diseases was reported.

In order to prevent the occurrence of typhus 177,960 kilos of 10% D.D.T. was prepared out of which 101,160 kilos were sent to the provinces and 76,800 kilos allotted to the Central Health Bureau for spraying purposes. According to the studies made by the experts of the Ministry of Public Health, the 10% D.D.T. has not been strong enough to destroy completely the parasite causing the disease, so a report was sent to the W.H.O. to advise another germicide. The Ministry finally managed, in co-operation with the experts of the W.H.O., to purchase quantities of B.H.C. which will be used during the latter part of the fourth year of the Plan.

52


Section II

53


GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
THE exact geographic description of
Afghanistan is between Longitude
E.60.30 and 75.50, and Latitude N.29.30
and 38.30. Bounded on all sides by land,
it covers an area of 250,000 sq. miles,
from the awesome peaks of the Hindu-
kush in the north-east, to the western
deserts of the Helmand.
Along the approximately 1,200-mile-
long northern border, mostly defined by
the rivers Amu (Oxus) and Murghab, lie
the Soviet Republics of Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan.
The western border, against Iran, is
also partially marked by rivers and lakes,
and runs from Zulfiqar down to the Malik
Siah mountain.
The southern boundary is flanked by
Baluchistan; whilst to the east the Wakhan
finger of Afghanistan touches on to the
Sinkiang Province of the Chinese People's
Republic, to Chitral, and Pakhtunistan.
Afghanistan has been called the
"Switzerland of Asia", mainly due to its
mountains and the absence of a seaboard.
From the north-east to the south-west
stretch the massive Hindukush ranges,
estimated at between 2½ and 3 million
years old. They are, in fact, a continuation
of the Himalayas, which, after subsiding
in the desert area between Afghanistan
and Iran, reappear in Southern Persia and
reach up to Turkey. Another extension of
this line goes through Herat and into Iran
to form the Khurasan range.
Around the north-eastern tip of
Afghanistan we get the immense, high
Pamir Plateau, commonly known as the
"Roof of the World", of which Wakhan
comprises the western section. This latter,
a narrow strip of land situated south of
the Victoria Lake, separates the U.S.S.R.
from Chitral, and creates the border
between Afghanistan and the Sinkiang
Province of China. Due to the changes
wrought during the Fourth Geological
Period the whole area has the appearance
of giant walls towering thousands of feet

above narrow valleys, where the thawing
of perpetual snows has produced power-
ful torrents.
Since Wakhan suffers severe winter for
seven months of the year only a few of
the southernmost valleys are inhabited,
generally by folk who draw their live-
lihood from sheep rearing.
MOUNTAIN RANGES
Hindukush
The Hindukush itself is the largest
range in Afghanistan, and has played a
significant role throughout her history: for
centuries its passes have been used as
communication routes between the Amu
and Sind (Indus) rivers.
Straddling the country from the north-
east to the south-west, the Hindukush
should be studied from two viewpoints—
the central core; and the peripheral ranges,
which we shall enumerate later on.
From the north to the central core the
shrinking of the earth's crust caused in-
numerable anticlines, later to take the
shape of mountains. The synclines, on
the other hand, have been completely or
partially filled with rivers, so creating
tectonic valleys, such as at Seighan and
Surkhab in the north, and Panjsher,
Ghorband, and Bamyan in the south.
In all the Hindukush comprises a
length of around 370 miles, which may be
divided topographically into two sections,
eastern and western. The former runs
from the Uli Valley in Little Pamir to the
Khawak Pass in Southern Badakhsan,
the western range from Khawak to Ak
Robat in the Valley of Bamyan.
The Eastern Hindukush is highest of
the Afghan mountain ranges. Approxi-
mately 16,400ft. above sea level none of
its passes is lower than 8,000ft., which
means they are deep in snow for most of
the year. The greatest peak is that of the
Ter Ajmir, 25,400.; and amongst the
most important passes come the Shetbal,
15,978ft., the Aulian, 16,634ft., and the
Khar Zar, 15,748ft.
54


Sata Kandaw Pass, Sulaiman Ranges in Pactya Province.


In these passes, and in the northern Kunar Valley, are traces of glaciers, and at heights above 16,400ft. glaciers may still be found similar to those of the later part of the Third Geological Era. It is due to the melting of these that we get the tributaries of the Amu and Sind on either side of the Eastern Hindukush.
The almond shape of the Western Hindukush enjoys an average height of 15,600ft., but its lower passes have been employed by travellers and invaders over the ages. The Khawak Pass, the most easterly point of the Western Hindukush, reaches to 11,800ft.
Other passes are Tal, Koshan, Char Dar, Dandan Shikan and Shibar.
Koh-i-Baba
This range constitutes the central formation of Afghan mountains, separated from the Hindukush by the Bamyan Valley, and extending roughly across the middle of the country. With an average height of 13,100ft. above sea-level, some of its peaks do in fact attain 16,400 ft. and more, but the Shah Fouladi, at 16,864ft., is its highest.
The range itself provides the water for a considerable number of waterways, amongst them the Band-i-Amir, the Hari Rud, and the tributaries of the Helmand, all of which are conceived in the Koh-i-Baba slopes.
The passes are of great importance as a means of communication, and being more accessible than those of the Hindukush are very attractive to travellers.
Parapomisus
To the west of the Koh-i-Baba is yet another colossal range, the Parapomisus (Feroz Koh); known to the north of the Hari Rud as Koh-i-Saffid, and to the south as the Western Sia-Koh. The rivers radiating from these flow north towards the Aral and Caspian Seas, and from the southern slopes go eastwards to the Helmand.
Tir Band-i-Turkestan
North of the Parapomisus range, and above the valleys of the Murghab River

comes the Tir Band-i-Turkestan range, running horizontally between Longitudes 66 and 63. But although it seems an independent chain it is in reality an extension of the central core of the Hindukush. Some 180 miles in length, the average height of its mountains is only half that of its sister Hindukush.
One of the characteristics of this range is the dissimilarity between its northern and southern slopes. The latter have eroded and changed over the years; whilst the northern faces remain intact as a result of the sand deposited on them by the winds sweeping down from the Turkestan desert.
Sia Koh and Spinghar
Back to the east of the Koh-i-Baba, just beneath the lower Hindukush, are yet two further ranges; the Sia Koh commencing in Swat and extending westwards through Kunar and Kabul to disappear in the Logar Valley; and the Spinghar stretching westwards from Peshawar also terminating in Logar. Amongst the passes of the Spinghar is the famous Khyber, and it is in these two ranges that many Pakhtun tribes reside.
Western Sulaiman
Flanking the south-eastern corner of the country lies the Western Sulaiman range, extending through to the Eastern Sulaiman in Waziristan and Baluchistan. These mountains are perhaps the most attractive in Afghanistan, enhanced as they are by forests and fertile valleys.
WATERWAYS
As regards rivers Afghanistan can be divided into three main basins—the Helmand and Indus basins to the south, and the Aral-Caspian basin to the north.
A great many rivers emanating from Pamir and the northern Hindukush, from the Koh-i-Baba, and the Western Sia Koh flow towards the Caspian basin. Some of these, like the Amu, finally flow right into the Caspian or Aral Seas; whilst others, like the Murghab and Hari Rud, have now ceased to do so and disappear in the deserts and steppes.

56


The Amu (Oxus)
This forms the boundary between
Afghanistan and the Soviet Republic for
a distance of about 700 miles. Known as
Aab-i-Wakhan at its source in Little
Pamir, and later as Aab-i-Panja, it is
gradually augmented by the several
tributaries which join it, until it eventually
becomes the full-spated Amu. Before
reaching Istkashim, in a virtually east-
west direction, it crosses deep gorges and
chasms. Here it turns directly north on
its journey to Wishkari, and drops a height
of 3,300ft. From Wishkari it courses
southwards again to where the Kokcha
joins it, and then runs west into desert-
land, until, at Khamiab, it leaves Afghan
territory altogether to flow up to the Aral
Sea.

The Murghab
This river has its sources in two lakes
lying alongside Latitude 35. From their
height of 8,200ft. the waters of these two
lakes flow west to converge at Charsada,
and form the Murghab.
Flowing initially through the Chagh-
charan and Feroz Koh areas, the Murghab
then descends to the plain, and changes
course up to Bala Murgrah.
Its fertile shores are used extensively
for agriculture; and at Maruchak, some
thirty miles from Bala Murghab, the river
is cut by the boundary between Afghan-
istan and Russian Turkmenistan.

The Hari Rud
This, too, rises from two lakes, the
Sangalab and the Sarjangal, both occurring
13,100ft. above sea level in the Koh-i-Baba
range. It travels between the Western
Sia Koh and the Koh-i-Saffid to the
verdant plain of Herat, slowing and
widening as it goes. Before arriving at
Koshan, near the Afghan-Persian border,
the river drops more than 10,600ft., then
swings north-east to Islan Qala, and north
to Turkmenistan. Between Koshan and
Tuman Akha the Hari Rud flows inside
Afghan territory, but hereon it marks
the boundary between Afghanistan and

Iran, until at Zulfiqar it flows out into the
Turkmen deserts.

The Kabul
This river, from which the capital takes
its name, rises at Unai, 11,500ft. above sea
level, and flows down into the Kabul
Valley. Before reaching the capital it is
joined by a number of tributaries, and
later, on its way to Jalalabad, by the
Logar and Panjsher.
At Jalalabad it is met by the most
important of its tributaries, the Kunar;
and at Attock, near Peshawar, it finally
flows into the mighty Sind, having run
some 286 miles. In the summer months
it is used to irrigate the majority of the
zones through which it passes.

The Helmand
Of all the rivers of Afghanistan the
Helmand is the longest, 620 miles. Rising
from the Hazarajat mountains near the
source of the Kabul, at a height of
12,500ft., it flows south-westwards through
very mountainous country to Girishk. It
is just south of here that its main tribu-
tary, the Arghandab, joins it.
The Arghandab itself is a river of
considerable note, with three tributaries,
and in fact it only joins the Helmand in
winter time, for during the hotter seasons
its waters are harnessed for irrigation
purposes.
Hereonafter the Helmand runs through
barren land, terminating in the three great
Hamun lakes which lie on the Afghan-
Iranian border.
The flow of the Helmand is very
fluctuating, ranging between 2,000 and
60,000 cubic feet per second, accounting
for the delta and lakes at its mouth, and
the frequent changes in the boundary
between Afghanistan and Iran.
Recently however, the entire Helmand
Valley has come within a vast irrigation
scheme. Under the Five-Year Plan its
waters are being harnessed to supply the
formerly barren area with the water so
desperately needed; and the flow will be
controlled to guard against floods,
especially in the area near Chakhansur.

57


CLIMATE

AFGHANISTAN has no coastline and therefore does not benefit from the sea's mild and moist weather, because the sea breezes are blocked by the southern ranges of mountains along the Afghan border, and any precipitation they cause does not penetrate into Afghanistan. This results in mostly a rather dry and hot climate over the southern and south-western lowlands.
Similarly, many of the northern winds blowing over Siberia do not reach Afghanistan sufficiently to affect the weather a great deal, although those which do make winter rather severe in many parts of the country.
On the other hand, Afghanistan's height above sea level governs the climate considerably. Thus there are areas where the summer months are intensely hot, and there are other places where the weather is extremely mild in summer.
Climatically speaking, Afghanistan can be divided into three regions:
High regions, regions of intermediate height, and lowlands.
The high regions are composed of mountains and river valleys where, generally speaking, the climate is cold and the temperature variation in different seasons is considerable.

Places above 7,500ft. generally have longer winters, sometimes extending to about seven months. Nooristan, a large section of Badakhshan and Hazarajat have this kind of weather. (Areas above 12,500ft. are uninhabitable and are usually covered with perpetual snow.)
Areas between 4,000 and 7,500ft., such as Kabul, Ghazni, Katawaz, parts of Badakhshan and Hazarajat, the upper Kunar valley and others have a milder climate and four distinctive seasons. Summers are not very hot. Winters can be cold, sometimes reaching -4° F. (-20° C.).
The second category includes places at heights between 2,700—4,000ft., such as the northern slopes of the Hindukush, the foothills of the Ghor mountains, Kandahar and the lower valley of Harirud. These places have a hot summer, but their winter is not very cold, the temperature reaching to about +14° F. (-10° C.).
The lowlands are areas lower than 2,700ft. and include parts of northern Afghanistan, the entire south-western part and the lower Kabul valley. The summer temperature is extreme, reaching about 120° F. (48.4° C.) in the sun. The nights and winter temperatures are warm. The rainfall is the lowest there. To the south-

A farm in
Nouristan.


The last crags of the lower Hindukush, just above Bamyan.

west and west there are also summer winds carrying hot air, brown dust and sand in a generally north-to-south direction. This is also called the "120 days dust storm".
In Afghanistan, spring (March—May) is the rainy season. There are thunderstorms and floods in spring and occasionally in early summer. Other than this period and the winter months, the sky is of the deepest blue colour, and there are sunny days and starry nights everywhere. The Spin Ghar and parts of Hindukush's main range, with their perpetually snow-capped peaks, strike a most beautiful picture against the blue skies and brown or green countryside, according to the different seasons of the year.
Spring and fall seasons are ideal, when the days and nights are comfortably cool and the atmosphere as a whole is invigorating. The autumn, however, has another advantage: many varieties of fruit, for which Afghanistan is famous, ripen

and abound in markets all over the country.

VEGETATION
Deodar, common spruce, pine and larch are the conifers which grow in forests at levels from 6,000 to 10,000ft. These forests are located in Paktya and Nangarhar provinces. Other trees in these regions are yew, hazel, juniper, walnut, peach and almond. Species of hawthorn, blackberry, current, gooseberry, honeysuckle and roses are also found here. At lower heights in the north can be found citrous fruits and wild vines. Lower still and down to 3,000ft. there are walnut, oak, alder, ash, poplar, willow, roses, jasmine, acacia, sinjid (Elaeagnus angustifolia), pistachio, apricot, cherry, plum, quince, apple, pear, grapes and many other trees and shrubs. The lowest regions have citrous trees (in Nangarhar), palms, dates, figs and pomegranates.
There are many varieties of medicinal herbs, some of which are also exported. Ferula asafetida (of which the gum resin

59


is exported commercially). *Ephedra Atropa belladonna*, sunflower, caraway seed, wormwood, camomile, mint, night-shade, saffron, poppies, berberis, marsh mallow and artemisia are a few of the medicinal herbs.
Wheat, barley, rice, maize, varieties of millet, peas and beans are among the important crops grown in Afghanistan. Other plants of food value are: tomato, potato, egg plant, cucumber, spinach, carrot, turnip, lettuce, cauliflower, radish, onion, garlic, melon and watermelon. The Afghan melons, especially the ones from the Mazar-i-Sharif area, are very famous for their sweetness and delicacy.
Cotton, tobacco, sugercane and beetroot are some of the other cultivated plants, the products of which supply various local industries.
Clover, lucerne and alfalfa are fodder crops.

FAUNA
Afghanistan does not have a great many wild animals. The following are the known wild animals in the country; bear, wolf, fox, hyena, wild cat, wild dog, common leopard, tiger (Mongolian), mon-

goose, wild sheep, deer, hedgehog, porcupine, hare, mole, jerboa and pica. Oorial, ibex, ovis poli and ammon inhabit the mountainous areas of central and north-eastern Afghanistan.
The domestic animals include horses, camels, cows, ghizgaw (yak), donkeys, sheep, goats, dogs and cats. The many varieties of sheep include the famous Karakuli raised in northern Afghanistan. The Karakoli lambskin (also known as astrakhan and, wrongly, Persian lamb) comprises a very important export item for Afghanistan. There are many breeds of horses, the Kataghani being, perhaps, the best. Bactrian (two-humped) camels are to be found in the northern provinces.
There are some 124 specimens of birds including pheasant, teal, crane, woodcock, partridge, falcon, hawk (some of which are trained for game-hunting) golden oriole, magpie, bulbul, swallow, quail, sparrow, pigeon, dove and cuckoo. Domestic birds include hens, ducks, geese and turkeys.
Trout and some other varieties of fish abound in the fresh-water lakes near Bamyan and in all the major rivers.

Bamyan Valley.


HISTORY
THE geographical term "Afghanistan" is not the original name of the country. Prior to 1747 it was known as Khorassan, meaning "the land from which the sun rises". The original name of the country, however, as recorded in ancient documents, is Aryana. These documents are the "Vedas" and the "Avesta". The Vedas are collections of hymns and prayers of the Aryan race around the time of their migration south-eastward (to the sub-continent of India) and westward through Persia to the west, about 3,500 years B.C. Both Vedas and the Avesta speak of "Yama", the first King of the Aryans who ruled from Bakhdi, known today as Balkh in the province of Mazar-i-Sharif. The habitat of the early Aryans, according to Avesta, was the country north and south of the Hindukush mountains (extending through the heart of the Afghanistan of today). Thus when the ancient history of Afghanistan, is discussed, one is bound to find oneself talking of Aryana, of Bakhdi and of the people who lived there about 5,000 years ago.
According to Avesta, three important dynasties ruled in Aryana. These were the Paradata, the Kavas and the Aspas. Yama was the founder of the first dynasty. The founder of the second dynasty was Kawikwata or Kaykvat. Here again the centre of Government was Balkh, and Alburz, a mountain to its south, was considered a sacred mountain which they called the "Mountain of light and knowledge".
Lahr-Aspa was the founder of the third dynasty. It was during the reign of his son, Wishtaspa, that Zaratushtra the Great made his appearance. Zaratushtra, the founder of the doctrine of monotheism and the freedom of will to choose between Good and Evil, was born in Balkh around 1000 B.C.
A series of internal and foreign wars during and after the reign of Wishtaspa resulted in feudalism taking the place of one strong Aryan Kingdom at Balkh. This went on till the Achaemenians of Persia came on the scene. Cyrus, the Achaemenian ruler, led his Persian army against the Aryans in battles which lasted five years (549-545 B.C.) and resulted in his death. Percipolis became the centre of the Achaemenian empire, but their rulers took advantage of the experience and knowledge of the Aryans, who were better acquainted with governmental affairs. This has been witnessed by Herodotus in his journeys through Aryana.
Feudalism continued as before, and whenever occasion offered, small Aryan kingdoms rose against the Persian rulers and weakened them. This went on until the appearance on the scene of Alexander the Great (334-330 B.C.) when the Persian Empire was broken up and the last of the Achaemenians in Aryan territory was killed.
The Afghanistan of that day then braced itself as a united nation against the Greek invader. A feudal ruler, Bessus, was proclaimed King at Balkh This hastened the Greek attack on Afghanistan.
Herat was the first bastion which fell to the hand of Alexander. He built Alexandria Aria there, mainly to guard himself against attack from the rear, and went on to Seistan and thence to Arachosia, the Kandahar of today. This was in 329 B.C.
From there he headed for the foothills of Hindukush, north of today's Kabul, where he founded a fourth Alexandria, the other two being at Seistan and Kandahar. In the spring of 328 B.C. he crossed the Hindukush via Ghorband and Kazhan to Adrapsaka, the present Andarab. Bessus prepared for the defence of his last stronghold of Balkh. The resulting war lasted two years. Alexander returned south after the conquest of Balkh and the

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death of Bessus, and reaching the natural boundary between Central Asia and the sub-continent of India—the Indus River—crossed it near Attock.

The invasion of the Aryan land took Alexander more than four years to complete. He left his generals behind him as rulers of various parts. These generals, in turn, were responsible for the establishment, after the death of Alexander, of the Greco-Bactrian rule in Afghanistan which lasted for two centuries. Meanwhile the Maurya dynasty, founded in India, acquired some areas to the south of Hindukush, bringing with it Buddhist culture and religion. Asoka (273-232 B.C.), the most important king of the dynasty, accepted Buddhism and established great centres of the religion in Afghanistan. It was from here that Buddhism spread to all parts of Asia and it was here that the Buddhist culture and tradition developed and flourished for more than a thousand years.

The Indian rule, however, was short, as the Greco-Bactrian rulers soon expanded their influence and territory into India (220-20 B.C.). Balkh, during all this time, remained the centre of the government and was known as "The Mother of Cities". Around 50-20 B.C., however, the influence of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty had declined considerably and the regions north of the Hindukush were lost by them to the Parthans, Askas who gave their name to Seistan in south-eastern Afghanistan, Pahlevas and Kushanis.

In time the Kushanis, coming down from across the Oxus, spread over the entire country and conquered a greater part of India. Kadphisus and Kanishka are two of the most famous Kushani rulers. The latter, also known as the Prince of Gandahara (today's eastern Afghanistan), ruled over an empire extending into the valleys of the four rivers—Oxus, Ganges, Indus and Tarum—and even beyond that into Sinkiang and Kashgar. His summer and winter capitals were both in the heart of Aryana up to this time, that is Kapisa (present Gagram, north of Kabul) and Purashapura (present Peshawar). Kanishka ruled between 120-160 A.D. and was followed by other Kushani rulers whose dynasty ended around 220 A.D. Feudal rule of smaller Kushanis took over parts of the country, but they were faced with Sassanians from the west and Ephthalites from the north-east, and eventually left the scene to the latter. Around 420 A.D. the Ephthalites were faced with, and, in turn, broke down the influence of the Sassanians on the one hand, and of the Indian Guptas on the other.

The beginning of the sixth century A.D. saw the decline of the Ephthalites and their breakdown to feudalism all over Aryana. A wave of Mongolian tribes, under the name of Tokios, came into the picture around 560 A.D. and took over areas on both sides of the Oxus and later made Kunduz, north of the Hindukush, their centre. Kapissa, south of Hindukush, which was in the hands of the Kushani and Ephthalite descendants had by this time created a strong and united kingdom in the area, which spread eastwards to Texala on the opposite banks of the Indus, southwards to Kuram valley, the present Dera Ismail Khan, and westwards to Seistan. The rulers of this kingdom were known as Ratbil. Their reign saw the beginnings of the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan in the 7th century A.D.

The last dynasty of Kings prior to Islam, however, were Kabulshahan, known also as Brahmanshahan. They made Kabul their capital. The struggle of these rulers against Islam lasted over two centuries and when they were finally defeated, a significant part of the conqueror's army consisted of forces recruited from amongst the original residents of Afghanistan of that day, Yaqublais and Amrlais Saffarid and their followers, who, finding in Islam a religion compatible with their spirit of indepen-

62


dence and ethics, accepted it very devoutly.
The attack of Islam began in the year 645 A.D. and by 654 they had established some foothold in Afghanistan. Merv and Nishapur, Kirman and Zaranj had fallen into their hands. More invasions were being planned when the Afghans, under the leadership of Karan of Herat, attacked and turned the Arabs out of Nishapur. This precipitated the Arab invasion of Afghan soil which they called Khorassan. By 668 the Amawi caliphs of Baghdad had carried their invasion a step forward into Merv in northern Afghanistan. In 672 some fifty thousand Arabs were settled there to preserve the Arab influence which, however, was still limited to Merv and Nishapur. The rest of the country was under the rule of local Afghan leaders.
Conditions remained much the same for over a hundred years. Neither the Arabs could complete their invasion of the entire country, nor could the Afghans throw out the foreign forces. In about 750 A.D. Abu Muslim Khorassani, with his 100,000-strong Muslim force, announced his kingdom and the end of Amavid rule. He was instrumental in bringing the Abbasids to power. However he was treacherously murdered by the second Abbasi Caliph. Once again the Arabs advanced into Afghanistan until in 826 Tahir, originally from Herat, upon appointment as governor of Khorassan, proclaimed himself the ruler of Khorassan. He thus became the first independent King of the Muslim Tahirid dynasty, ruling over Balkh, Takharistan, Merv, Herat, Nishapur, Kirman and Seistan.
The Tahirids were overthrown by the Saffarids around 880 A.D. The Saffarids were instrumental in extending the religion of Islam and their rule over the greater part of Afghanistan and encouraged the Dari Persian, as against the Arabic language.
The Saffarids in turn gave way to the Samanids of Balkh in 920 A.D., and the

A colossal Buddha dominating the Bamyan Valley, which dates from the 2nd or 3rd century A.D.

Samanids ruled until 1010 A.D.
By this time in Ghazni a local government had been established by Alaptagin, a general who at one time was the governor of northern Afghanistan. His son-in-law Subuktagin extended his government to Kabul and from there to the shores of the Indus. Subuktagin secured the favour of the last kings of the Samanids in defending them against internal outbreaks, and thereby succeeded in securing a legal rule for himself in Ghazni. The famous Sultan Mahmood the Ghaznavi was Subuktagin's son, who added Baluchistan, Punjab, Multan, the greater part of Persia and later the dominions of the broken-down house of Saman, to his empire. Ghazni became a great and splendid city, a centre of culture and a cradle of literature and fine arts in his time.
The Ghaznavids were followed by the Saljuks, a dynasty of Turks from Ghaz north of the Oxus. Tughral Saljuki,

63


declaring himself King in Nishapur, extended his kingdom from Afghanistan to Mosul and made himself leader of the Holy War against the Christians in Gurjistan and Caucasus. Another important Saljukid king was Jalaludden Malik Shah, who extended his kingdom into Asia Minor and established centres of learning at Herat, Isfahan, Basra and Baghdad.
The last king of the dynasty was Sanjar who limited his country to Khorassan and Trans-Oxiana, and who was eventually overthrown by wild hordes of Ghaz Turks.
The Saljukis were followed by Khwarazmshahis in northern, and the Ghorids of Ghor between Herat and Kandahar, in southern Afghanistan. Ghor enjoyed locally independent governments under the Suri and later under the Ghaznavid dynasties. Sultan Ala-uddin "Jahan suz", a king of Ghor, revolted against the powerful Ghazni empire, overthrew it in 1152 A.D., burned the beautiful city of Ghazni, earned himself the title of Jahan Suz, "World-burner", and created the Ghori dynasty. The Ghorids followed the pattern of Ghaznavids in conquering India and in propagating Islam there. Sultan Ghiasuddin and Sultan Shahabuddin were the most important kings of the period. The dynasty's rule over India lasted four centuries and was so much focused there that their own country was almost forgotten by them. As a result, with the death of Sultan Shahabuddin, the Khwarazmshahis of northern Afghanistan caused the disintegration of the Ghorid rule in Afghanistan.
Alauddin Mohammad, a king of the Khwarazm dynasty, occupied eastern Turkistan, Ghor, Persia, Azarbaijan and then headed against the Abbasids of Baghdad with the hope of making himself the sole Emperor of the Muslim world. But, midway to his goal, he heard the news of the Mongolian invasion of his country. He ordered a hasty return home, only to see the entire territories of trans-Oxiana, Afghanistan and Persia overrun and totally destroyed by the Mongolian hordes of Chengiz (1220-1224 A.D.).
After Chengiz, northern Afghanistan remained in the hands of his descendants and the south-eastern part was locally governed. The Chaghatai rule lasted over 160 years. During the period of Mongol rule the Kurts of Herat secured a position of importance to themselves. They were originally from Ghor and in later years also ruled over Maimana, Sabzwar and Seistan.
Their rule ended with the advent of Temur Koragan (Tamarlane) who conquered Afghanistan over a period of eight years in the closing years of the 14th century. Temur destroyed what was left of the country after the Chengiz invasion. The reign of his fourth son Shahrukh Mirza, however, made up for a good deal of loss in cultural heritage when he established an almost completely Afghan government in Herat and did his best for the restoration of the country in every aspect. The 100 years of Temurid dynasty in Afghanistan were, for the most part, years of prosperity and progress for the country. This ended in the coming into the picture of Shaibanids and Astrakhanis of trans-Oxiana and of Safavids in Fars. Both sides started a series of incursions against the Temurids who lost their territories to them.

MOGULS
In 1504, Babar, fifth in descent from Tamerlane, lost Farghana to the Uzbeks and came down the Hindukush to make Kabul the capital of a strong government. From Kabul he invaded India in 1526, overthrowing the Afghan Ludi government of Delhi. His son Hamayun lost the Indian throne to Sher Shah Suri, another Afghan ruler, but this period of Afghan rule was short-lived. The Mogul rule spread not only in India, but also in Kabul, Gandahara and Kashmir. The Afghanistan of those times has many a

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[BLANK PAGE]


A view of the historic citadel of Balahissar.

(Sadozais) and the Barakzais (Moham-
medzais) ensued, which resulted in the
further expansion of Ranjit Singh's
territories and the eventual disappearance
of the Afghan Empire in India. Dost
Mohammad Khan Barakzai established
himself as the King in Kabul, Ghazni,
Jalalabad and Herat.
In 1832 the British Government sent an
envoy, Sir Alexander Burnes, to Kabul.
His mission was "to survey possible routes
of advance towards India and to test the
friendships the British might form in the
region". In 1836, he went there again,
this time to the court of Amir Dost
Mohammed Khan, on a "commercial
mission", shortly to be followed by a
military expedition, and Shah Shuja who
was installed as a puppet king. The main
body of the expeditionary force, faced
with unfavourable circumstances, retreated
into India in 1841 leaving a garrison,
several thousands strong behind to protect
Shah Shuja and the British envoys Sir
William MacNaughton and Sir Alexander
Burnes.
Shah Shuja, who had made himself
extremely unpopular, found the whole
nation in revolt against him. The British
forces lent him support against the
nationalists which resulted in the loss of
his life and that of Burnes. This event is
described in the annals of British military
history as "an ill-fated expedition that
vainly cost the English an army and Shah
Shuja his life". This is what is known as
the First Anglo-Afghan War.
The ensuing reign, for the second time,

of Dost Mohammed Khan had nothing
historically important about it. He was
succeeded by his son, Amir Sher Ali
Khan, who attempted to reform the
Afghan Army and bring about better
social conditions. He refused to allow
British agencies to be opened in various
parts of the country. He was invited to
Ambala for further negotiations, which
produced no results. In 1878 the Amir
received a Russian mission upon the
failure of his earlier negotiations with the
British. This was considered by the
British to be a hostile act. They sent a
strong force against Afghanistan which
occupied Quetta and the Kurram valley,
and attacked Kabul from three sides. The
war ended in victory for the British and
Sher Ali Khan retreated into Russia
where he died shortly afterwards. The
Treaty of Gandumak was imposed upon
his son Yaqub-Khan. A British resident
was also received by him in Kabul.
However, the fall of the same year (1879)
saw the Afghan people's attack upon the
British garrison at Kabul in the Second
Anglo-Afghan War. Yaqub Khan was
captured and sent to live in exile in
India, but his brother Ayoub Khan put
up a gallant fight at Maiwand, close to
Kandahar.
Amir Abdurrahman was given the
leadership of Afghanistan in 1880. He
signed a treaty of friendship with the
British Government. Tzarist Russia in
1885 occupied Panjdeh from Afghanistan.
A series of internal feuds against the
Amir's authority in 1888-1892 and
external politico - economic pressure
brought to bear upon him, left the Amir
with no choice but a diplomatic war with
the British, concerning that part of the
Afghan territory which was taken away
from him — the so-called North-West
Frontier of India and the territory of
Baluchistan, known today as Pakhtoon-
istan.
His son, Amir Habibullah, also
accepted the rule of the British Govern-
ment over the external affairs of Afghan-

66


istan and remained neutral during World War I. His reign ended with his assassination near Jalalabad (February, 1919) and the coming to power of his son Amanullah.
During Amir Amanullah's reign, Afghanistan's last and successful claim was made for complete independence from foreign rule. The people's demand for freedom resulted in the War of Independence known also as the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The victory at Thal of General Mohammed Nadir (the late Nadir Shah) expedited the recognition by the British of complete Afghan independence and the establishment by Amir Amanullah of diplomatic relations with the outside world. Russia recognised the independent government of Afghanistan and soon other countries such as Turkey, Persia, France, Germany, Italy and several others followed suit.
This achieved, the Amir embarked upon reforms aimed at preparing Afghanistan to play her part in international affairs. The result was that he was invited to visit several European countries from which he came back with a determination that "westernisation" should be introduced into Afghanistan almost overnight. His attempt brought some opposition from a section of the population, but the ensuing revolt against him was really hastened by the intrigues of foreign elements rather than a lack of desire on the part of the nation to see Afghanistan develop along modern lines.
Amir Amanullah abdicated in 1929 and a ruthless brigand called Habibullah Bacha-i-Saqa came to power for nine months, every day of which meant the loss of a great many lives in Afghanistan. At the time, General Mohammed Nadir, former Afghan Minister in France, who earlier was promoted to the rank of Marshal of the Army and Minister of War, was a sick man in Paris. When he heard of Bacha-i-Saqa's depredations, he immediately set out for Afghanistan. The
condition of his health on departure from France was such that a stretcher had to be used to bring him on to the steamer. Once inside Afghanistan, the people rallied around him and helped him to deliver them from the tyranny of the bandit ruler. So great was the impact of his selfless service to the nation, and so ably had he brought about the people's deliverance that on October 16th, 1929, the notables of the country proclaimed him their King at Kabul.
King Mohammed Nadir Shah was a direct descendant of Sultan Mohammed Khan, a brother of Amir Dost Mohammed Khan. His first job was to consolidate the country and embark upon progressive measures. One of his most important deeds was the drawing-up of a new Constitution for Afghanistan, which he accomplished with the help of an elected Parliament. Unfortunately in November, 1933, only four years after coming to power, he was assassinated. He was succeeded by his only son, His Majesty Mohammed Zahir Shah, the present King of Afghanistan.

The beautiful Sherpur Mosque.

67


THE PEOPLE

THE figure of 12 million population for Afghanistan is an estimated one, as the project adopted four years ago for a new and complete census has not yet been completed.
The Afghans are entirely Muslim, with the exception of minority groups of Hindus and Jews in various parts of the country, but these number less than one per cent of the population.
From this figure, about 60% are composed of the Pakhtoons (Pashtoons). They occupy the provinces of Nangarhar (in the east), Paktya (in the south), Kabul and Kandahar, Herat, Kataghan and Mazar-i-Sharif, too, have Pakhtoons residing in them. The speak Pakhto and, of course, are mostly also able to converse in Persian, the other main language of the country.
Next to them in numbers are the Tajiks, Persian-speaking peoples who live in Badakshan, Kataghan, Kabul and Herat. These make up about a quarter of the Afghan population.
The rest of the population is made up of the people of Afghan Turkestan, Kirghiz and Turkman, speaking Turkish dialects; Hazaras, living in central mountainous areas and speaking Persian; and Nooristanis speaking various dialects mentioned in the previous chapter.
On the whole, Afghans are a pastoral and agricultural people. Whether north or south, east or west, they are mainly busy farming, rearing cattle—sheep, goats and cows—and herding donkeys, horses and camels, mostly for transportation of their products to markets within the country for bartering.
There are roughly about two million Pakhto-speaking nomads who travel constantly from summer pastures in Central and northern Afghanistan to their warm winter quarters in the eastern and southern lowlands.
Life under somewhat hard geophysical conditions has made the Afghans a hardy people. They are warm-hearted, honest, trusting, generous and tolerant people, and mind their own business so long as they are not interfered with. They work hard and live their own quiet lives. They learn fast and use what they have learnt for the good of their society.
They are slowly becoming aware of the limitations of their life as compared to that of the more advanced nations of the world, and are therefore increasingly determined to bridge the gap in material comforts which exists between them and the rest of the world. This calls for more hard work and more united effort on the part of the nation, and they readily accept their task for the attainment of a high degree of progress. They wholeheartedly support all plans and projects which are to bring them and their country more prosperity and a higher standard of life.
They are excedingiy patriotic and this is a tradition with the Afghans. They have an intense love for independence and would like all nations of the world to enjoy it without interference by anyone. Their love of freedom and self-respect is described in these words by the famous Afghan thinker and philosopher of modern times, Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani:
"Self-respect is the guiding light of the Pakhtoons and they prefer death rather than to lose their self-respect by passing under the rule and yoke of others . . ."
Physically the Afghans are tall and well-built. Their complexion is light tan. They have dark hair, usually dark eyes, somewhat long heads and long straight noses. Other types also exist in small numbers.
They love the open air and are fond of sports, which range from wrestling and weight-throwing to hunting and marksmanship. Their favourite games, too, show their trait of toughness. One of
68


Inside a grape drying room.

Nomads and their animals march north to the Hindukush valley.


these games is called Buzkashi, a game of agility, wit and supreme horsemanship. Divided into two teams consisting of 50 to 2,000 riders, they endeavour to pick up the carcase of a calf from a fixed place, gallop with it a distance of one to five miles and throw it back near the original spot.
Their tradition of hospitality is well-known. For a guest there is no end to their kindness. As one famous author puts it: "One could go to any Afghan home and be warmly received. He would get the best food the family had to offer. The house would be his home, though he were a total stranger. If there was only one room, it would be turned over to him..."
Their national code of Pakhtanwali (Pashtanwali), based on righteousness,

parallels the Islamic teaching of which they are devout followers. Many individual and tribal problems are solved in accordance with the unwritten rules of this code.
They are a proud people, their pride born of their heritage of thousands of years. An Iranian writer has this to say of the Pakhtoon's national pride:
"If you ask even a poor Afghan who is dressed in rags and is your paid servant who he is, he will answer with pride that he is a Pashtoon. From his expression and the tone of voice you can see that he is proud of being a Pashtoon. His firmness of voice and his dominating gestures make you feel that he is the master and you are his servant."

Buzkashi—the game with hundreds of horsemen.


LANGUAGE AND CULTURE

THE recorded cultural heritage of the Afghans dates back to the time when their country was known as Aryana. The Rigveda, "Sacred Knowledge", the most ancient book of the Aryans, was for the most part composed in the valleys of southern Hindukush around 3500 B.C. Rigveda, the first of four collections of hymns, prayers and Aryan tales, mentions various geographical names like Kobha, Gandahara, Pactya, Gomati, Kromo, Swasto, which correspond to names in south and south-eastern Afghanistan today. The contents of the Rigveda are not only descriptive of the Afghan soil, but also give a detailed picture of the physical and spiritual characteristics of the Vedic tribes of Afghanistan. It can be said that the Afghan tales of valour, their social traditions, moral and spiritual values, folklore, folk songs and folk dances have their origin in Vedic times and Vedic mentality, and in the course of several thousand years, have been modified and have come down to us in their present form.
The Vedic language has been considered the oldest known Aryan language south of the Hindukush.
A section of Avesta called Gath, too, speaks of the ancient habitat of the Aryans and of the peoples of Aryana, though its period is considered to be between 1000-500 B.C. The language and contents of the Gaths, moreover, show traces of similarity to Veda.
Around the year 1000 B.C. Zaratrushtra appeared in Bakhdi (Bactria or Balkh) and spread his doctrine of monotheism and Good and Evil and the freedom of the will to choose between Good and Evil, between Right and Wrong. The Greeks brought their culture with them around 320 B.C., which blended with the Aryan culture over a period of 200 years. Today we have relics of this period in various forms of art, termed Greco-Bactrian. Greek script was also introduced from
which later the Greco-Kushanid characters developed. Greek medicine, astronomy, mathematics and geometry spread in Aryana and got mixed with literary and social principles of Bactria and Aryana.
Buddhism, too, flourished in ancient Aryana around 250 B.C., and missionaries from there went far and wide to preach the message of Buddha.
The contact between the Greek and Buddhist culture produced yet another significant trend in the land of the Aryans. Effects of Greek sculpture found their way into the works of the Gandahara school of art, whose Buddhas began to show resemblances to Greek gods. The two huge statues of Buddha (120 ft. and 175 ft. tall) hewn from the cliffs of Bamyan, some distance north of Kabul, are of particular significance to students of history and tourists at large.
The late Aryans' own script was actually a modified version of Aramaic script. The latter had appeared in Aryana around 800 B.C. A few samples of this script are to be found today in Kabul Museum. Around 300 B.C. Kharoshti, another script, made its appearance in Aryana and of this there are several samples on metal and clay vessels and slabs of stone. It was written from right to left and also appears to have been used by business people as well as the clergy but perhaps was not the official language.
Next to that was Parakrit, another Aryan script used around the same time as Kharoshti and under the same conditions.
Gandahara, in the meantime, had also cradled the Sanskrit language. During Kanishka, the great Kushani emperor, Sanskrit was given attention it had not received until then. It soon became a language rich in resources and wide and varied in use. Kanishka encouraged the arts during his time and gathered many a poet, philosopher and learned person around him. Parsawa

71


and Wazomitra, both from Gandahara, were his literary councillors. Mantanza and Gabharana were two of the many learned people from Gandahara of his time.
Buddhist temples were the main centres of art and literature. Hundreds of students and learned people were conducting their studies in various fields, composing great poetry, writing books and doing translation work in the temples. Writing was done on wood blocks, which were thus prone to destruction. Some writing of this period was found in 1930 near the smaller statue at Bamian and it is believed the author is Aswagosha, a poet at the court of Kanishka.
Around the third century B.C. another tongue, of the same family of languages as the above, came into the picture on the shores of the Oxus and was called Parsawi. This tongue developed and spread to the western regions of Khorassan, while it was still being spoken at its original source. It was from this that the Dari Persian developed, which is one of the two main languages of Afghanistan today. The first known poet in Persian was Hanzala Badghisi (Badghis being a district in western Afghanistan). Many great works in this language have come into being in Afghanistan, the most famous being the Shahnama of Ferdawsi of Tus, which was written during the reign of Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi.
The origin of Pakhto, the more prevalent of the two main languages of Afghanistan, is somewhat obscure. A close study of it shows resemblances to Parakrit and to Zend, the language of the Avesta. Parakrit is one of the languages of the Indo-Aryan group of languages, as opposed to Zend, which is in the Indo-Iranian branch. Pakhto thus seems to be an independent language alongside the Indo-Aryan and Indo-Iranian languages, and to have evolved, with the others, from a mother tongue—the original tongue of the Aryans—prior to their migration south and west.

Pakhtoons are the people who speak Pashto (Pakhto). The words Pakhtoon and Pakhto are related to the name of Bactria, or Bakhtar, Bakhdi or Pakhdi (the modern Balkh), the origin of Zend, the language of the Avesta. Herodotus mentions the Pakhtoons as Paktyes and calls them a branch of the Aryans inhabiting the country of Paktia.
Other dialects spoken in Afghanistan are as follows: Baluchi, Shughni, Roshani, Wakhi, Inshkashni, Ormuzi, Parachi, Kati, Waigali, Pashai, Uzbeki, Turkmani, etc.
The advent of Islam brought with it the rich Arabic language and Afghanistan, accepting the religion, turned its attention to Arabic culture and literature. It is a known fact that services rendered by Muslims from Afghanistan to the World of Islam were diverse.
Many religious leaders rose from Afghanistan to spread Islam eastward and southward and even to contribute in propagating Islamic thought and philosophy westward. Imam Azam ben Sabit, Imam Ahmad ben Hambal Marwazee, Mohammed ben Keram Zaranjee, Maulana Jalaluddin Balkhi, Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani are but a few who may be named in this respect. Arabic literature, too, was served by such eminent Afghan literary figures as Bishar ben Bard Takharistanee Abu-Ata-i-Sindee, Abul Fazl Ahmed and many others. Contributions were also made to Arabic literature in medicine, astronomy, and astrology by Afghan scholars.
During the Islamic period, the place of sculpture was taken by developments in architecture, calligraphy, painting, illustrating, illuminating, etc., of which today there are many brilliant examples in various parts of Afghanistan and in museums everywhere. Amir Khalil, also known as Ghiasuddin, Ruhullah Mirak and Behzad Herawi are the most famous illuminators and artists of the ninth century in Afghanistan.

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CONSTITUTION
In the name of Allah the most Merciful
THE CONSTITUTION OF AFGHANISTAN
Fundamental Laws of the Government
of Afghanistan

Article 1. The religion of Afghanistan is
the sacred religion of Islam, and the
official and popular school of religion is
the Hanafite School. The King of Afghan
istan must be a Hanafi Muslim by belief.
Followers of other religions, such as
Hindus and Jews, residing in Afghanistan
also enjoy protection provided they do
not violate the ordinary rules of conduct
and propriety.
Article 2. The Afghan Government
enjoys complete independence in the
administration of its internal and external
affairs. All places and parts of the
country constitute a single entity under the
command and exalted direction of His
Majesty the King, and no distinction is
made between different parts of the
country.
Article 3. The city of Kabul is the
capital of Afghanistan, and all residents
of the country are equal in the eyes of
the Government. The residents of the
city of Kabul have no special privileges
as compared with those of other cities
and towns of Afghanistan.
Article 4. The official flag of Afghan
istan is black, red and green, and bears
in the centre an ear of wheat, an altar
and a pulpit.

RIGHTS OF THE KING

Article 5. In appreciation of the devo
tion shown and services rendered by His
Majesty Ghazi Mohammad Nadir Shah
Afghan, in obtaining the independence
and deliverance of the land of Afghan
istan, and in the uprooting of oppression
and despotism, the Afghan nation in
general has recognised His Majesty as a
fit and worthy King of his country and has
accepted him as such with the greatest
esteem and respect. His Majesty the King
at the time of his accession to the throne
of independent Afghanistan, publicly
undertook, in the presence of the Repre
sentatives and Nobility of Afghanistan, to
carry on the administration of his royal
government in accordance with the dic
tates of the expounders of the sacred
Shariat of the Holy Phophet (Peace be
upon him) and the Hanafi belief, and the
Constitution of the country, and to regard
the preservation of the independence of
Afghanistan as his most important duty.
to be true to his nation and country, and
not to violate the above-mentioned
stipulations. The noble Afghan nation,
therefore, agrees that the Crown of
Afghanistan will be transferred to the
family of this King, desirer of the progress
of the country, and that succession to the
throne will be in accordance with the
selection of His Majesty and the people
of Afghanistan.
Note: By family is meant eldest son and
brother.
Article 6. The King of Afghanistan,
before his accession to the throne, shall
make and sign the following declaration
in the chamber of the National Assembly.
and in the presence of the members:
"I swear by Almighty God and the
sacred Quran, knowing that God the

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Glorious is omnipresent and omniscient, to rule according to the Shariat of Mohammed (peace be upon him) and the Constitution of the country (and to strive) for the protection of the glorious religion of Islam, the independence of Afghanistan and the rights of the nation, and for the defence, progress and prosperity of the country. So help me God through the blessings of the sacred spiritual force of the blessed saints (the approval of God be upon them)."
Article 7. In Friday sermons the name of the King will be mentioned, and the coin of the realm will bear his name, and other rights as follows will be vested in the King:

"Bestowal of rank and office; award of honours; appointment of the Prime Minister; sanction of the appointment, transfer and dismissal of Ministers; assent to measures passed by the National Assembly; proclamation of, enforcement and protection of the same; protection and carrying out of the Shariat and civil laws; command of the military forces of Afghanistan in general; declaration of war and conclusion of peace and treaties generally; remission and reduction of punishment in general according to the Shariat law."
Article 8. An allotment for the expenses of the King will be included in the Budget of the country.

GENERAL RIGHTS OF AFGHAN SUBJECTS

Article 9. All persons residing in the country of Afghanistan are called Afghan subjects without any distinction of creed or religion. Afghan citizenship is acquired or lost in accordance with the citizenship laws.
Article 10. All Afghan subjects, although required to observe the injunctions and prohibitions of their Government in religious and political matters, are free to enjoy all their legal rights.
Article 11. There is no interference with personal liberty. No one may be imprisoned or punished without an order in accordance with the Shariat or the appropriate laws. The practice of slavery is forbidden in Afghanistan. No male or female may keep any person as a slave.
Article 12. Afghan subjects are free, within the limits of the appropriate laws, in all matters relating to trade, industry and agriculture.
Article 13. All Afghan subjects, in accordance with the Shariat and Government laws, are equal in their rights and the country's duties.

Article 14. Any Afghan subject, according to his ability and capacity, is taken into Government service as required.
Article 15. In Afghanistan the movable and immovable property of everyone is protected. In the event of any immovable property being required by the Government in the public interests, the value of it will be paid to the owner according to Shariat law and the special law concerned, before it is taken over.
Article 16. The residence of every Afghan subject is safe from every sort of interference. No official or other person may enter into a private residence without an order under Shariat law or the laws of the land.
Article 17. Confiscation of both movable and immovable property is forbidden, with the exception of that belonging to persons residing abroad who are making propaganda or intrigues against the Afghan Government.
Article 18. Levies of money and forced labour are prohibited, except during time of war.

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Article 19. The rack and other kinds of torture are completely abolished. No punishment may be inflicted which is not prescribed under the laws of the land and the Sacred Shariat law.
Article 20. Primary education for the children of Afghan subjects is compulsory.
Article 21. In Afghanistan Islamic teaching is unrestricted. Every Afghan subject is permitted to impart Islamic religious instruction. Foreigners, however, with the exception of those engaged to teach arts, industries and foreign languages, are not permitted to open and conduct schools in Afghanistan.
Article 22. The public schools in Afghanistan are under the supervision of the Government, so that the education and culture imparted by these institutions may, without infringing the articles of the Islamic faith, provide the benefits which accrue from the study of science, art and industry. But there will be no interference with principles of education which are concerned with the faith and religion of the "Ahl-i-Zimma" (followers of other faiths, living under the protection of Islam).
Article 23. The Press and newspapers of Afghanistan, such as are not against religion, are under no restrictions save as defined in the special law relating to them. The right of publishing newspapers, etc., belongs to the Afghan Government and subjects. The entry into Afghanistan of foreign newspapers which do not contain matter against religion and the policy of the Afghan Government is unrestricted.
Article 24. In the settlement of personal disputes and other matters falling within the province of the courts of justice and official departments, persons who are not satisfied with the decision and order of such organisations may appeal to a higher authority, up to the Minister concerned, and, if still not satisfied, to the Prime Minister and His Majesty the King.
Article 25. Revenues and taxes are levied in accordance with separate laws.
Article 26. Nothing may be recovered from anyone beyond what is laid down in the Government laws.

SHURA-I-MILLI (National Assembly)
Formation of the Body

Article 27. The National Assembly came into being at the instance of His Majesty the King with the approval of the Jirga, held at Kabul in the year 1309 A.H.
Article 28. This body is solely composed of individuals who have a joint share in the social and political affairs of Afghanistan, i.e., they are representatives of all the inhabitants of the country.
Article 29. The National Assembly is composed of members elected from the province of Kabul and other provinces and districts, and assembles at the capital.
Article 30. The number of members of the National Assembly is stated in the election laws.
Article 31. The first session commences from the opening day of the National Assembly and it is laid down that new elections will be held at the expiry of each term of three years. If voters wish to re-elect the same member they are at liberty to do so.
Article 32. Session and recess times of the National Assembly will be laid down in the National Assembly Law.
If during a recess the Government deems it necessary to have some bill passed, this will be approved by the Government as a temporary measure, and brought into force by His Majesty's Command. If this bill is approved by the National Assembly when it reassembles, it will be added to the laws of the country. Otherwise it may be modified or rejected by the aforesaid National Assembly.
Article 33. A meeting of the National Assembly can also be summoned during a

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recess to consider and settle important questions and, should it be impossible to call a general meeting on account of the urgency of the matter to be discussed, the members for Kabul and neighbouring districts only will hold a meeting of the National Assembly.
Article 34. Matters at the National Assembly may be discussed when at least half of the members are present, and a decision will be reached on the basis of a unanimous vote or on a majority of votes.
Article 35. The National Assembly will, at the opening of each session, present an address to His Majesty the King, who will make a reply.
Article 36. Members attending the Assembly for the first time will take and sign the following oath:
Article 37. Form of Oath: "We, the undersigned, on account of the confidence vested in us by the nation and the Govern-ment, swear by God the Great and the sacred Quran that we will remain true to our nation and Government".
Article 38. Members of the National Assembly are at full liberty to express their views before the Assembly and no objection of any sort can be raised against them.
Article 39. All debates of the National Assembly, since the results thereof will become effective and public, will be open to representatives of the Press and visitors, who, however, in accordance with the law of the National Assembly, have the right to attend and listen only.
DUTIES
Article 40. The National Assembly will manage its internal affairs, such as elec-tion of President, Vice-President and secretarial staff, and framing of rules of debate, etc., as laid down in the National Assembly law.
Article 41. All bills and measures, the framing and existence of which are con-sidered essential for strengthening the foundations of the Government and regu-lating the affairs of the country, will be
passed by the National Assembly.
Article 42. Adjustment of financial matters, rejection or adoption of taxes and revenues, and the Government's new financial undertaking will be subject to the approval of the National Assembly.
Article 43. One of the duties of the National Assembly is to examine and pass the national Budget, after it has been prepared and submitted by the Finance Ministry.
Article 44. New laws will be brought into force, and existing laws amended or repealed only by the National Assembly, whether the necessity for such action has been initiated by the Assembly, itself or by Ministers.
Article 45. Grants of concessions, the formation of companies and public firms of every kind will be sanctioned by the National Assembly.
Article 46. Contracts, agreements and grants of concessions (monopolies) whether relating to trade, industry, agri-culture, etc., and whether Afghan or foreign, will be concluded with the approval of the National Assembly.
Article 47. Any Government loan, whether from within the country or from without, shall be secured with due information to, and approval of the National Assembly.
Article 48. Extensions of public highways and (building of) railways, whether paid for by the Government or Afghan or foreign firms or companies, are completely subject to the approval of the National Assembly.
Article 49. The National Assembly has the right, whenever necessary, to submit a petition to the King. The petition, how-ever, will in all circumstances be sub-mitted by a deputation composed of the President and six members elected from amongst themselves. The Ministry of Court will arrange the time for such an audience.
Article 50. Ministers may attend the sit-tings of the National Assembly to hear debates. They have also the right, having
76


obtained the permission of the President, to explain and elucidate matters (under discussion). Seats are reserved in the Assembly Chamber for Ministers.
Article 51. Whenever the necessity for any new law is felt, a proposal for it is initiated by the Ministry concerned and put before the National Assembly by a Minister or the Prime Minister, and will come into force after it has passed the National Assembly and received the assent of His Majesty the King.
Article 52. In case of need, the President may, either by his own motion, or on the proposal of ten members of the Assembly, or that of a Minister, call a secret session, from which the Press and visitors will be barred. He may also arrange a secret meeting composed of certain selected members, to which other members will not have the right of entry. But the outcome of the deliberations of such a committee or meeting will be made official only when the matter is discussed in the presence of three-quarters of the selected members, and approved by a majority of votes. If the measure is not agreed upon in the secret meeting, it will not be announced to the Assembly and the latter will not discuss it.
Article 53. In the event of a secret meeting being convened on the motion of the

President of the Assembly, he is authorised to publish all or as much of its deliberations as may be suitable. But if the meeting is called at the instance of a Minister, the disclosure of the subject matter will be contingent upon the permission of the same Minister.
Article 54. Ministers have the right to withdraw any measure, however much it may have been discussed by the Assembly; but if a measure is introduced by a Minister at the desire of the Assembly, withdrawal of such measure is contingent upon the consent of the Assembly.
Article 55. A bill introduced by a Minister and rejected by the Assembly will be returned with the latter's observations. The bill will again be read in the Assembly when the Minister has accepted or refuted the observations of the Assembly.
Article 56. When rejecting or accepting a bill, the members of the National Assembly will give clear and explicit statement of their views, and no one may seek to encourage or threaten them. Members of the Assembly will indicate their approval or disapproval of a bill by visible means, such as black or white (voting) paper, and in such a manner as to be obvious to Press representatives and visitors.

INTRODUCTION OF MEASURES BY THE ASSEMBLY

Article 57. Every measure introduced by a member of the Assembly may be debated, provided that at least a quarter of the members approve its discussion. The measure will then be forwarded to the President in writing, and the latter may, if he so chooses first refer it to a committee for investigation.
Article 58. A group of members of the National Assembly, selected by the rest of the members, approved by the President, and called a "Committee" will, in the first instance, carefully investigate measures brought before the National

Assembly, and submit to the Assembly through the President, such matters as require discussion, with a statement of its own views. The measure will then, with the permission of the President, be discussed by the Assembly. Proposals which are incomplete or do not necessitate the discussion of the Assembly, will be returned by the President to the Ministry concerned, with a statement of his reason for doing so. A committee will consist of at least ten persons.
Article 59. A Minister who is interested in a bill admitted for discussion in the

77


The imposing
Maiwand Monu-
ment in Maiwand
Wat.

PROVINCIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Article 71. In the chief town of each Governor's Province, whether Naib-ul-Hukumat, Hukumat-i-Ala or Hukumat-i-Kalan, an advisory Committee will be set up.

Article 72. The mode of selection, number of members and duties of this committee are set forth in a separate law passed for the purpose.

DUTIES AND RIGHTS OF MINISTERS

Article 73. The administration of the country is carried out by Ministers, who are selected by the Prime Minister and approved by His Majesty.
Article 74. The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the Cabinet, and in his absence the Minister in charge of the Prime Minister's office will perform the duties of Chairman.
Article 75. Only a Muslim Afghan subject is eligible for appointment as Minister.
Article 76. Ministers are responsible to the National Assembly as regards the policy of the Government in general, and of the Ministry under their charge in particular. His Majesty the King is, therefore, free from all responsibility.

Article 77. The responsibility of Ministers and the policy relating to them will be fixed by law.
Article 78. Ministers dispose of matters within their powers, and submit those beyond their powers to the Prime Minister, who deals with them up to the limit of his authority, and submits such cases as may be beyond his powers for the orders of His Majesty the King.
Article 79. When a Minister is suspected of an offence connected with his official duties he will be tried at the Diwan-i-Ali (Supreme Court). Charges against a Minister in his private capacity will be referred to the Courts of Justice as in the case of other subjects.
Article 80. A Minister under accusation

79


lion, tending to the disturbance of public peace, be discovered in any part of the country, the Government has the power to adopt measures necessary to put down

the insurrection and restore peace.
Article 105. The formation of Municipal Councils and their duties are governed by a special law.

ARMY

Article 106. Recruitment in the army, military duties, rights and promotion are governed by special laws.
Article 107. No member of the army may be deprived of his pay or rank other-

wise than as laid down in the laws.
Article 108. Foreign subjects, with the exception of doctors and military instructors, are not accepted in military employment.

MISCELLANEOUS PRINCIPLES

Article 109. Privacy of correspondence is one of the rights of the people. Letters and other communications from the public, on which postage has been paid, may not be opened by any office or at any other place, except under an order of inspection from a court, but must be

delivered closed to the addressee.
Article 110. Whenever a verbal order is given to a Minister or a civil servant by His Majesty or the Prime Minister, he should obtain such order in writing, and signed by the King or Prime Minister.
Dated the 8th Aqrab, 1310 (31st October, 1931)

ADDENDUM

Article 1. Officials of the Foreign Ministry, military officers and such Afghan students as are sent abroad to be educated at Government expense are not allowed to marry foreign subjects.
Article 2. It is forbidden for foreign subjects to own land in Afghanistan. Foreign Legations in Afghanistan will, in accordance with agreements concluded with their respective countries, be accorded reciprocal treatment.
Dated 12th Sunbula, 1311 (2nd September, 1932)
Amendment of Article 2 of Addendum. Foreign subjects in Afghanistan have no right to own property. Foreign Embassies and Consulates in Afghanistan will, in accordance with mutual agreements, be accorded reciprocal treatment.
Dated 24th Asad, 1317 (15th August, 1938)
Amendment of Article 51. Whenever the need for a law is felt in a Ministry or independent Government Department, a bill is prepared by that Ministry or Department and studied by the Council of Ministers and upon approval, is forwarded to

both Houses. The approval of the two Houses and the Royal Assent make the bill into a law.

Shahi Gardens, Jalalabad.

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GOVERNMENT
ACCORDING to the Constitution of Afghanistan, the King appoints the Prime Minister, who then forms a Cabinet. This last, on the approval of the monarch, is made responsible for the various governmental departments.
The National Assembly, composed of 173 elected members, has power to check the activities of the various Ministries, to approve or disapprove the Government's budget, and to ratify all bills presented to it with or without amendments, or to reject them. When the National Assembly is not in session any Government Bill becomes temporarily effective if and when ratified by the King. However, it remains subject to confirmation by Parliament at its next session. All Bills have to pass the two Houses. Judicial power rests with three Islamic courts—the Primary, Appeals and Supreme.
To examine offences committed by civil servants in the day-to-day execution of government duties there are special courts.
The following Ministries are entrusted

Premier Nehru replies to the Afghan Premier's welcome address.

with particular government duties:
National Defence, Foreign Affairs, Interior, Justice, Finance, Education, Health, Communications, Commerce, Public Works, Agriculture, Mines and Industries, Press and Information, Tribal Affairs and Planning.
In Afghanistan there are 15 provinces in all, the head of each being appointed by the Prime Minister, and approved by the King. Various minor aspects of government work in each province are looked after by directors appointed at Kabul by the Ministry concerned, e.g. a provincial Director of Education is appointed by the Ministry of Education and carries on his duties under the immediate supervision of the Governor of the province, and forwards progress reports to the Ministry of Education.
The vigilant Afghan Government have undertaken carefully calculated measures to better the country and the prosperity of the people, and today the nation enjoys many new facilities.

FOREIGN RELATIONS
Alongside the national measures for the welfare of the population, the Afghan Government have defined a very clear-cut policy for themselves as regards relations with other governments and nations.
It is one of mutual respect, equality, non-aggression and non-intervention in the internal affairs of other States. Neutrality is a traditional policy of the Afghans. They love freedom of judgment and action in their own matters, and would like to see such freedom universally regarded as the natural and legal right of all peoples and nations of the world.
Before the outbreak of World War I, Afghanistan participated in the Disarmament Conference, and in 1935, joined the League of Nations and other international conferences of the time, and remained faithful to their peaceful prin-


His Majesty the King of Afghanistan receiving President
Eisenhower at Bagram airport.

His Majesty the King smiling while President Eisenhower
and Mrs. John Eisenhower are presented with bouquets
by children at Bagram airport.

President Eisenhower and His Majesty the King driving
through the streets of Kabul.

His Majesty the King speaking during a luncheon held
at Chilsutoon Palace in honour of President Eisenhower.

84


Sardar Mohammed Naim, Afghan Foreign Minister (right); Premier Khrushchev (centre); and Mr. Gromyko, U.S.S.R. Foreign Minister, having a chat.
His Majesty the King and Premier N. Khrushchev a few minutes after the Soviet Prime Minister had alighted from his plane at Bagram airport.
The two Premiers toasting the health of His Majesty the King of Afghanistan.
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Realising the significance of personal contacts in the establishment of friendly relationships among governments and nations, the leaders of Afghanistan have received leaders from, and in turn have visited, several foreign countries. These include the State visits to Afghanistan of Mr. Nixon, President Gamal Nasser, Mr. N. S. Khrushchev, Premier Chou en Lai of the People's Republic of China, Mr. Adnan Menderes of Turkey, Mr. U Nu of Burma, Mr. Iskander Mirza and Mr. Suhrawardy of Pakistan, Mr. Voroshilov of the Soviet Union, Mr. Nehru of India, Mr. Eisenhower and Mr. Krushchev for the second time, the King of Nepal and several other leading personalities of the world.

His Majesty the King has been invited and visited Turkey, the U.S.S.R., Pakistan and India. Prime Minister Sardar Mohammed Daoud has been invited and visited Egypt, Pakistan, the U.S.S.R., Burma, India, Turkey, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, People's Republic of China, the U.S.A. and Iran.

Sardar Mohammed Daoud and His Majesty the Shahinshah of Iran.

His Majesty the King with His Majesty King Mahindra of Nepal.