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all directions converge, Kabul has always been a great centre of trade. The head offices of all the Afghan Banks, (D'Afghanistan Bank, the Afghan National Bank, the Agricultural Bank, the Afghan Commercial Bank, and the Construction Bank), as well as those of the Afghan Commercial concerns are located here. Representatives of some foreign firms also have their offices in Kabul.

From the tourist's point of view, Kabul is an interesting place, with fine climate and an abundance of all sorts of delicious fruits at prices which suit every pocket. Besides, there are some fine gardens in and around Kabul, suitable for all sorts of excursions. All those who have visited Kabul know these gardens very well, and it must be rare exception when someone who has been there does not hold happy memories of the hours spent in these soothing and delightful surroundings of the capital. Of these mention may be made of Bagh-i-Babur (Babur's Garden), Chihil-Stoon, Gul-Bagh, Gardens of the Secretariat in Darulaman, the King's Garden at the entrance of Paghman, and the private garden of H.R.H. Sardar Shah Mahmoud Khan Ghazi at Rishkhore, next to Gul Bagh.

(1) Babur's Garden: This garden is only a mile and a half from the western extremity of the old city, and lies at the base of the Sherdarwaza Hill. It is laid out in beautiful terraces and has two swimming pools. The tomb of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire of India, stands on an eminence in the eastern corner of the enclosure, next to the bigger swimming pool. It is related that on his death-bed at Agra, Babur requested that his body be interred in Kabul, the choice place of his vast dominions. A clear-running stream still waters the fragrant flowers, and makes a sweet murmuring sound. Two magnificent old "chinar" trees, souvenirs of the Mughal days,


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stand as sentinels to watch over his grave. A little below the tomb lies a small but chaste mosque of pure white marble. It was built by Shah Jehan, the Mughal Emperor, to commemorate the fall of Balkh. The mosque, which had fallen into ruins, is now being rebuilt. Attached to the garden is an up-to-date Café, which remains open during summer months only. Lying close to the city, this garden is a great resort of the people, especially on holidays.

(2) Chihil-Stoon: This garden lies two miles beyond on the same road, and is a great attraction to the visitor, as no better picnic spot can be found so near the city. A fine building perched on a rock some 100 feet above the surrounding ground stands in the middle of this lovely garden. The panorama of the Chardeh Valley and the surrounding hills from this place is lovely beyond description.

(3) The Secretariat lies five miles south of the old city. A beautiful highway, flanked by tall poplars, leads to it. Its gardens are very fascinating and their charms are enhanced on Fridays when numbers of holiday makers throng there.

Opposite to the Secretariat stands an attractively built two-storied building. This is the Kabul Museum. It is a good place for those who are interested in the history of the country, and want to study and do research in the sculptures, inscriptions and other antiquities recovered from excavations.

The Museum is kept open during working days from 1 p.m. to 3.30 p.m. in winter, and 1 to 4.30 p.m. during summer. Visitors are not allowed to use cameras inside the Museum with-out obtaining permission from the Archæological Department of the Ministry of Education.


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rising higher and higher till the view is terminated by the snow-clad summits of the Hindu-Kush. The plain is watered by innumerable irrigation streams, cut from the Kabul and the Paghman Rivers, and during summer it is covered with smiling green fields and is gay with flowers of every description. The fields and lanes are all fringed by rows of stately poplars, willows and sinjits. The orchards richly stocked with fruit trees, flowers and vegetables, diversify the landscape. The Kabul and the Paghman Rivers, their banks shaded by trees, and here and there guarded by forts, wind leisurely through this happy valley. Some of the fine public buildings—those of the civil hospitals, Rifqi Sanatorium, Medical College, Malaria Institute, Faculty of Science, Government Poultry and Dairy Farms, and the Teachers' Training College—are also located in the different parts of this famous valley.

The famous shrines in and around Kabul are those of Ashuqan-o-Arifan, Khawaja-Safa, Shah-i-do-Shumshera, Shah Shahid, Timur Shah, Hazrat Jabir-i-Ansar, Sakhi, Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, the late King Mohammad Nadir Shah Shahid, and Sayyed Jamaluddin Afghani.

(2) Kabul to Mazari-Sharif (distance 389 miles):
After crossing the Khair-Khana Pass 4 miles north-west of Kabul, the traveller finds himself in a spacious and beautiful plain, called Kohdaman or Samti-Shamali (old names—Paropamisadæ and Capisia). This Kohdaman (the skirts of the hills), which intervenes between Alexanderia-ad-Caucasum (probably modern Charikar) and Kabul, is one of the most fascinating valleys of Afghanistan.

The road which intersects this beautiful valley is level for the most part, and is flanked with mulberry trees. There is a


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steady fall from the Khiar-Khana pass right up to Charikar. The chief stages en route are: Shakar Darrah (the Sugar-Valley), Sarai-Khoja and Karra-Bagh. From the last point a road leads to Istaliff, and the second runs to the Bagram plains, so famous in history.
Charikar, a thriving town, and a busy commercial centre, forty miles from Kabul, lies at the northern extremity of Kohdaman, at the mouth of Ghorband Valley. Some have identified it with Alexandria-ad-Caucasum. Three miles west of the town, at the foot of the Paghman range, lies the historic village of Opian (or Hupian). A second road to the right, leads to Gul Bahar, which lies ten miles east of Charikar. Thence a road goes to Tagab, Nijrab (or Nijrao) and Sarobi, and a second to Panjsher.
The main road from Charikar, running parallel to the Paghman range, crosses a small iron bridge, Puli-Mattak as it is called. A few furlongs ahead it branches off again, one part going to the right and leading to Jabalus-Seradj, a fascinating valley, at the entsance to the Salung Pass, where are located a hydro-electric station, supplying electricity to the capital, a cement factory, and a textile mill; the other branch, turning to the left, passes through a narrow gorge. This is the beautiful valley of Ghorband, which is some sixty miles long, and one to ten miles broad, while in some places the rocky cliffs on either side are hardly 100 yards apart. The road runs along the Ghorband River. It often skirts difficult hills with deep ascents and descents. The Ghorband Valley is very famous for fruits, especially peaches and almonds.
The Valley of Muttak, too, has great charms. The roaring milky-white waters of the Muttak irrigate every beach-like low-land along its course; every inch of ground has been planted


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in corn, wheat, rice or clover. There are mulberry trees all around. In July the edges of the fields show yarrow, morning glories, chicory and hollyhocks. The Ghorband valley shrinks as the road approaches Shibar Pass. Now it is a twisting defile with little place left for any farming Project. The cliffs rise straight and steep, showing limetone, sandstone and granite.

The road climbs sharply, winding along the edges of cliffs, swinging in cutbacks across rugged slopes, rising to a crest and then dropping to narrow canyons, only to climb again. The road drops into a gorge that gets narrower and narrower for 20 miles or more. Now the walls of the canyons are squeezed so close that there is often little land to till and so none is tilled. On the south side of the Shibar, the green rive-bottoms stand like oases between dry hills. On the north side of the Shibar, the contrasts are slightly different, dark-green river bottoms against barren hillsides, grey-green water under purple and red cliffs, and a winding strip of fields and orchards that run like a lush furrow down a dry, winding mountian defile.

The famous places en route are Burj Guljan (55 miles from Kabul), Siah Gird, 70 miles Chardeh, 78 miles and Kazi Baiza, 111 miles at the foot of the Shibar Pass, where the Ghorband takes its source. Shibar is a difficult pass and during winter is often blocked with snow. About 19 miles west of the pass the road branches off; one taking to right enters the Shikari Pass, whence it leads to Mazari-Sharif and Kataghan, while the second, turning left, leads to Bamian, the City of Caves, which is only 15 miles from the junction and 145 miles from Kabul. The road to Bamian runs roughly parallel to the river of the same name in the opposite direction, and skirts a range of hills. After six miles from the pass an old mud fort perched on a steep rock attracts the attention


The newly-built Silo at Kabul.


Kabul Museum.


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of the traveller to itself. This is called the city of Zahak-i-
Maran. A little further the valley widens and the city of
caves, more then 2,000 in number, appears. This is the historic
city of Bamian, now in ruins, lying at the foot of a hill, 8,400
feet above sea-level.

The Valley of Bamian, deep sunk in the great plateau, is
between 8,000 and 9,000 feet above the sea, and the passes lead-
ing out of it are over 10,000 feet. To the south is the magificent
snow-capped array of Koh-i-Baba, the culminating group of the
central water-parting of Afghanistan, running to 16,000 and
17,000 feet. Rocky and toothbreaking, as may be the passes of
these northern hills, they are all practicable at certain times and
seasons, but for months they are closed by the deep snow of
winter storms, and the fierce terror of a blizzard. The deep valleys
traversing the storm-ridden plateau are often exceedingly beauti-
ful, and form a strange contrast to the dull and barren rocky
ridges that appear on all sides.

It is the mystery of its unrecorded history and the local
evidences of the departed glory of Buddhism, which render
Bamian the most interesting valley of Afghanistan. Bamian,
though today completely in ruins, speaks eloquently of its one-
time grandeur. Each year has seen some striking revelation of
its past history or some beautiful addition to the magnificent col-
lection in the Museum of Kabul. Much still remains to be ex-
cavated to throw more light on the deeper secrets of its past his-
tory.

Massive ruins still look down from the bordering cliffs, and
for six or seven miles these cliffs are prierced by an infinity of
cave dwellings. Little is left of the ancient city, except its
acropolis (known as Shahr-i-Ghulghula), which crowns an


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isolated rock in the middle of the Valley. Enormous figures
of Buddha (53 and 35 metres high) are carved out of the
sedimentary rock on the sides of the Bamian Gorge. Once
coated with cement and possibly coloured and gilded, these
images must have appealed strongly to the imagination of the
weary pilgrims, who prostrated themselves at their feet. "The
golden lines sparkle on every side", says Huien Tsang, who saw
them in the year 630 A.D., when he counted more than ten
monasteries and a thousand monks of the "Little Vehicle" in
the Valley of Bamian.

Of the images, the smaller, over 100 feet in height, is the
older. It seems that it was begun in the second century A.D.,
probably under the influence of patronage of Buddhism by
Kanishka the Great. The bigger one of about 160 feet is of
a later date, probably the fourth or fifth century A.D. The
niches of the Buddha contain marred but still beautiful frescoes,
dating from about the same periods. They are very interesting
from the archæological point of view, as they show an
important stage in the long process which brought the Buddhist
art of India to Afghanistan and blended it with Greek and
Sassanian elements before it ultimately found its way through
Sikiang to China and Japan. "It is funny how things travel—
an unknown Greek artist, here in Afghanistan, created the first
image of the Buddha by adapting to the needs of the new creed
the image of Apollo. India gave to this hybridization the stamp
of its deeper spirituality. Then it travelled back through
Afghanistan and Central Asia to inspire the Buddhist master-
pieces of China and Japan".

Aesthetically there is nothing really beautiful about these
two Buddhas. They are out of all proportion. Yet ugly and


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uncouth as they are, there is about them a deep religious aura. Whatever your religion, you cannot help feeling that the artists who carved them have put all their faith into their work, and that at least some of their spirit is still there. And if you look at them at night, especially if there is a moon......well, you may think that they are still alive.

"However few and scattered the ruins may be now, it is difficult to evoke the Bamian of old, as Huien Tsang saw it—when the Buddhas stood in all their glory, gilded and poly-chromed; when the caves were full of shaven monks in their yellow robes singing the praises of the Blessed One; when the last descendants of the great Kushan conquerors were still trying to keep up the artistic traditions of their ancestors; and when the town, the size of which was said to be so great that a child lost in its streets was only identified again as an old man of 75, was pulsating with life".

There is an unmistakably religious atmosphere around Bamian. It was, as we have seen, an important Buddhist centre and it must have been a religious centre before that. In the days of old, when Bamian was lying on the great caravan route between India and China, travellers, after days spent battling across the Hindukush, where nature is so fierce and seems ready to crush man at any moment, suddenly saw opening in front of them the Valley of Bamian—green, peaceful, full of flowing streams, crowned by the majesty of Koh-i-Baba—and they must have thought it a gift of God for the grant of this oasis in the wilderness of the mountains."

Bamian, though now in ruins, is still one of the curiosities of the world. The city was swept off the face of the valley by


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Changez Khan early in the thirteenth century A.D. It is said that one of Changez Khan's grandsons, Mutugen, son of Jaghtai, was killed in the action when the Mughuls were besieging Jalaluddin, son of Alauddin Mohammad Khwarazmshah in the citadel of Bamian. When the town surrendered, Changez, in revenge, ordered that every living being, man or animal, should be killed. The ruined town was then named Mao-Baligh, that is, "the bad town".

Bamian was an important commercial centre in the Middle Ages, but now the new route, which connects Kabul with the northern provinces, passes some 15 miles to the north.

The present Afghan Government, which shows great interest in the relics of the past, is diligently looking after ancient monuments, and for the sake of travellers, who every year visit this place in large numbers from all over the world, has built here a comfortable rest-house.

From here a difficult road leads to Herat through the heart of the Hazara country. In winter it is rather impassable. Some 50 miles west of Bamian on this route lies Band-i-Amir, a fine chain of lakes encompassed by hills of various colours. The whole locality is of extreme beauty. The water of the lakes is of bluish green in colour and quite transparent. The old Hejdah Nahr (or 18 canals) of Balkh, famous in local history, probably received water from these lakes.

Band-i-Amir: One of the most interesting places for tourists to visit is Bandi-i-Amir, which, with its numerous and beautiful lakes is deemed one of the wonders of the world. The waters of Band-i-Amir issue forth from a spring named Kaprak, 10 miles from the sanctuary of Band-i-Amir. The water contains


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much calcium and has gradually formed, during thousands of years, the five splendid lakes of the Band-i-Zulficar, Pudina, Panir, Haibat and Ghulaman. Band-i-Zulficar, the largest of them does not, at its greatest breadth, exceed 200 metres, but its length is about five kilometres.

Band-i-Amir, as is true of most of the world's wonders, has its legends. It is said that a most puissant monarch named Barbar reigned from this region over the valleys of Koh-i-Baba and the Hindu Kush, and even beyond that. The legends place his capital at a place some 25 miles from Band-i-Amir, north-west of the Yakaolang, called Shahr-i-Barbar or Chihil Burj. It is said that in those days the water flowed in a head-long torrent that menaced the forts of the city and even threatened Balkh. In order to curb the stream, Barbar Shah commanded a thousand slaves to work each day from morn till eve in damming them. At last through a miracle of the Fourth Caliph, Ali, the waters impounded themselves and formed the existing five lakes Later on 18 canals were dug out of them for irrigating the northern regions of this district.

A quantity of water, sufficient to turn a water-wheel, flows into the lake of Band-i-Amir. The same amount of water descends on the spillways of Band-i-Haibat, the last of the lakes forming cascades. Moving along from the source of the lakes, the first that comes into view is the Band-i-Zulficar, the largest of them all. The second is the Band-i-Pudina. From this lake the water flows leisurely to Band-i-Panir. As the retaining walls of this lake are white, so it was given this name, which means the "Lake of Cheese". Next comes the lake of Haibat, the most beautiful of all. This lake has a length of four killometres


197
and is exceedingly deep. Its rose-coloured walls rise perpendic-
ularly from its azure surface. The white and rose margin of the
sky-blue waters makes a marvellous panorama.
The waters of Band-i-Amir, together with those of Ab-i-Ali
and Ab-i-Sarkol in the vicinity of Yakaolang, flow past the base
of the palace of Barbar Shah and the ruins of Chihil Burj. They
are joined during the length of their course by streams from the
eastern slope of Koh-i-Hissar, whence they flow to Dandan-
Shikan, and then veer towards the north, forming Balkh-Ab.
A visit to Band-i-Amir reminds one of the lines of Moore :
There's bower of roses by Bendemeer's stream,
At the nightingale sings round it all the day long.
Shikari Pass to Pul-i-Khumri: The main road, after
leaving the Bamian valley to the south, enters another gorge
called Dar-i-Shikari. It runs along the Bamian river, which now
flows to the north-west. The Shikari Pass commences at a
distance of 130 miles from Kabul, and is 259 miles from Mazari-
Sharif. This distance of 259 miles, from a geographical point
of view, may be divided into three parts. The road for the first
ninety miles runs through a very difficult country, where it is
hemmed in by huge precipitious mountains of different colours,
rich with the remains of old forts perched on the rocks. The
scenery throughout is most charming. At the termination of the
Pass lies Mekh-i-Zareen (the Golden Peg). Here for the con-
venience of travellers a modern rest-house has been erected.
The whole locality is famous for the variety of game. There is
trout in the river, and deer, pheasants and partridges along the
mountain sides. Mekh-i-Zareen is 163 miles from Kabul. Here
the Saighan-Kahmard stream flows into the Bamian, and that is
why the place is called Doab, the junction of two streams.


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The combined stream then flows towards Tala and Barfak,
the famous coal mines. The road running parallel to the river
enters another gorge, which terminates at the coal mines.

For the next eighty miles the road runs through the district
of small hills, chiefly composed of earth. Some of the hills are
covered with small bushes. Remains of stupas and ancient cities
can be seen on all sides. At Doshi (224 miles from Kabul) the
Andirab joins Shikari. At Puli-Khumri (254 miles from Kabul)
the road branches off ; one turning to the north-east to Beghlan,
Khanabad, Kunduz, Hazrat-i-Imam, and finally to Bakhshan
and Wakhan ; the other, turning to the left, enters an undula-
ting plain. At Rubatak the neighbouring hills are all covered
with pistachio trees. After crossing a small pass the traveller
finds himself in a vast plain, where lies the historic town of Aibak
(or Haibak). The whole of the district is full of important
remains, stupas, monastries, and forts. Capt. Talbot, during the
Afghan-Russian border disputes, unearthed some fine relics in this
locality. A small irregular stupa made out of solid rock was
discovered below ground level. It was surrounded by a ditch,
and crowned by a small square-built chamber, which was also
cut out of rock. Here he had the evidence of Buddhist occupa-
tion and Buddist workmanship forming a distinct link between
Balkh and Bamian, and marking one resting place of the weary
pilgrim.

The ditch-like valleys carved out of the wrinkled central
highlands of Afghanistan have existed as the focus of devout
pilgrimage, if not commercial activity, under the Bamian kings.
Above the surface of the plateau the long grey folds of the hills
follow each other in monotonous succession, with little relief
from vegetation and unmarked by forest growth. It is generally


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a scene of weary, stony desolation through which narrow white-worn tracks go in every direction. In the valley it is quite different. Cut squarely out of the plateau, these intersecting valleys, cliff-bound on either side with reddish walls like the ones which border the valley of Bamian, offer fair opportunity for sedentary life. Where these valleys open up there is space enough for cultivation, which in early spring makes a pretty contrast with the ruddy hills which hedge it on all sides. The plain of Aibak is watered by the Khulm River. The ancient route via Bamian, Saighan and Kahmard meets the present route at this place.

From Aibak onwards there is a vast expanse. This is the famous Bactrian plain, which extends as far as the Oxus. It is flat with a scattering of prominences and mounds at intervals, denoting the site of some villages or fortresses of sufficient antiquity to account for its gradual rise on the accumulations of its own debris, probably assisted in the first instance by some topographical feature. Looking south, it appears to be flanked by a flat blue wall of hills, presenting no opportunity for passage through it. This great flanking wall is in reality very nearly what it appears to be—an unassailable rampart ; but on approaching it some narrow ways intersecting it are discernible, through which the rivers of the highland make a rough passage to the plains. Wherever they tumble through the mountain gateways and make placid tracks in the flats below, they are utlised for irrigation purposes. Thus there exists a narrow fringe of cultivation under the hills which extends here and there along the banks of the rivers cut into the open Bactrian plain. These rivers never reach the Oxus. The waters of the streams are all lost in the plains ere they approach the great river. Nevertheless, there are abundant evidences of the former existence of a vast irrigation


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system drawn from the Oxus. The small lines of level
mounds, which break the horizon of the plains of Babylon are
also to be seen here, and they denote the same thing. They are
the containing walls of canals which carried the Oxus waters
through the hundreds of square miles of flat plains, where they
can never be carried again because of the alteration in the
respective levels of the plain and the river.

These rolling wavelike hills, with their marvellous spread of
grass and flowers in early summer, and which are dreary, wind-
scoured and barren in winter, are excellent sheep grazing
grounds, and are the home of the famous Karakul sheep.

The city of Mazar-i-Sharif, lying in the midst of this plain,
is only 90 miles north of Aibak. After crossing the plain of
Hazrat Sultan and Sabad, the traveller comes to the fertile valley
of Khulm (previously called Tashqurghan), noted for its beautiful
garden of Jehan Numa (the Mirror of the World).

Khulm is 351 miles from Kabul, and 38 miles from Mazari-
Sharif. Relics of the ancient city of Shahribanu (the Queen's
City) can be seen here up to this day. From here a road goes
cast and leads to Kanduz and Khanabad, while the main road,
running west, crosses a vast plain, and via Gorimar leads to
Mazari-Sharif.

Mazar-i-Sharif : (Population : 50,000 ; height 2,650 Ft.):
Mazar is now a thriving commercial centre of northern Afghanis-
tan. Most of the trade to and from Russia passes through it, in
addition to the huge trade that is done in Karakul skin through-
out the district. The modern town of Mazar has been
built around a shrine, supposed to be the last resting place
(Mazar) of the fourth Caliph, Hazrat-i-Ali. Some believe that
after the death of the Caliph, his body was brought here and


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interred secretly, so that the Khwarijs, his bitter enemies, should not desecrate it. It is on this account that it is held in the greatest veneration by the Muslims of all sects in the country. Once a year, during early spring, a great fair is held here, called the Mela-i-Gul-i-Surkh (the Festival of Red Tulips), during which the blind, infirm and maimed of many distant regions crowd into Mazar and, encamping around the shrine with the belief in miraculous power of healing, watch day and night for the Saint's interposition on their behalf.

The tradition goes that during the reign of Sultan Sanjar a man named Mohammad found in some books the information that Hazrat-i-Ali was buried in the Khairan Fort, near Balkh. He therefore came to Balkh and spread the news. Some of the Sayyeds of the town said that they too had a dream to this effect. The story was related to the governor, but a priest stubbornly denied it. That night, however, Ali himself appeared to this mullah and sharply reprimanded him for disbelieving these reports. The governor with all his staff at once went to the spot, where the grave was believed to be, and opening it, found the body of Ali in perfect preservation with an epitaph.

By the order of Sultan Sanjar (1117—1157 A.D) a building was at once erected over the grave. Changez Khan, during his depredations in the early part of the thirteenth century, destroyed the edifice, and only the grave known as the grave of Khoja Khairam remained intact. Later on, a descendant of Bayezid Bustami made it known again that the grave was that of Ali, and the coffin was reopened by the order of Sultan Hussain Bayaqra (1467—1504 A.D.). A red brick was found in the grave on which it was recorded that this was the grave of Hazrat-i-Ali. By the order of the Sultan a new shrine was built over it in 1481, which exists to this day.


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The tomb consists of two lofty cupolas, and it suggests that
the plan was copied from the Mussallas of Herat. The exterior
walls have been retiled. As it is now, there is nothing in the
mausoleum to compare it with the buildings and tile-works of
Herat; but all the same the general turquoise-blue effect is very
pleasing under the bright Afghan sky, surrounded as it is by old
trees and flocks of white pigeons flying around it.

(3) Mazari-Sharif to Herat: (Distance 507 miles, via
Balkh, Aqchah, Shibarghan, Shah Mardan, Maimanah,
Murghab, Qala-i-Nao, and Sabzak-Pass).

(a) Mazari-Sharif to Balkh (distance 12 miles): Balkh is
frankly a great disappointment. One has heard so much of
this city that was already of a hoary antiquity when Herodotus
wrote his history, that one expects to see something of its past
grandeur. As one approaches Balkh by the Aqchah road from
the west, one looks anxiously around for some outward signs of
its extreme antiquity. They are not altogether wanting, but
time and the mellowing hand of nature have rounded off the
mounds of debris which lie scattered over miles of the surround-
ing country, covered with the fresh green of vegetation that
leaves no sign by which to judge the age of its hoary past. It
is difficult to get back farther than the age of the terrible
conqueror Changez Khan. Beyond these surface ruins and
below them, there must be cities, arrayed, as it were, in under-
ground flats, one piled on another, strata below strata, till we
reach the debris of the pre-Semitic days of Western and Central
Asia. It was here that the Aryans laid the foundation of their
first city—Bakhdi of Lofty Banners. It existed centuries before
the era of Alexander the Great. Of its extreme antiquity there
can be no doubt. It is certain that at a very early date it was
the rival of Ninevah and of Babylon.


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The Arab historians call it Ummul-Bilad (the Mother of Cities). It was a great centre of commerce, a city of pilgrimage, Buddhist as well as Muslim, for many a century. But the city, which once covered a circuit of twenty miles, is now in ruins-a waste of ruins and many acres of debris-and the spectacle is extremely touching and awe-inspiring. Very little is left of the massive walls which once surrounded it. All that is left of it is a mound of dried mud, worn by weather into all manner of desolate and fantastic shapes. The whole of the northern portion is a heap of dust and debris. To the west three lofty arches still mark the remains of the Jama Masjid (Grand Mosque). The green cupola of the Masjid-i-Sabz (Green Mosque), and the arched entrance to the ruined Madressah (Academy) testify to the period of early Muslim occupation, as do the Top-i-Rustam and the Takht-i-Rustam (two ancient stupas) to the fervour of religious zeal with which its Buddhist inhabitants invested it in the early centuries of the Christian era.

Next to the Bazaar is the shrine of Khoja Abu Nasr-i-Parsa, a Timurid building of the second half of the fifteenth century. The facade is tiled with colours confined to white and two shades of blue, with some touches of black. Behind it, the dome, melon-shaped and ribbed, is covered with a mosaic of tiny tiles glazed in greenish-turquoise hue. It is an excellent specimen of Timurid architecture.

About the end of the fifteenth century because of the insalubrity of its climate Balkh began to be abandoned by the population in favour of Mazari-Sharif. Now the Afghan government, after some reclamation work, is trying with some success to revive Balkh by developing in the district the cultivation of cotton, and a new town is coming to life amongst the ruins.


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(b) Balkh to Andkhoi (133 miles) via Nasratabad (40 miles), Aqchah (56 miles), Shibarghan (93 miles), Khwaja Dokoh (101 miles). The road for the most part is level and runs through a sandy plane. The scenery is monotonous and tiring. Andkhoi is a small town but has a flourishing trade in carpets and Karakul skins.

(c) Andkhoi to Maimanah (85 miles). For the first fifty-three miles there is a vast plain. Then the traveller finds himself in an undulating desert of small hills. Maimanah is a small commercial centre, and is chiefly noted for its fruits. It is the centre of the province of the same name.

(d) Maimanah to Bala-Murghab (107 miles). The road runs through an undulating plain for the most part. Important stages en route are Ilmar, Kaisar, Kurmach, Bukiz, and Maruchak.

(e) Mala-Murghab to Qala-i-Nao 71 miles). There is no change in the general appearance of the country. Qala-i-Nao is an important commercial centre.

(f) Qala-i-Nao to Herat (99 miles). After a journey of thirty miles the Paropamisus range is reached. The road then leads through a pass, Sabzak as it is called, which presents some difficulty during winter months, when it is usually blocked with snow.

(g) After crossing the pass, we enter the plain of Herat, watered by the Hari-Rud (Arius of the classical writers). Other famous passes through the Paropamisus are : Zarmast, Ardewan, Sang, and Hazrat Baba. The total fall from these passes to Herat is about 2,000 feet. Between this range and the city there is a low ridge called the Koh-i-Mulla Khwaja, which with an attitude 600 to 800 feet higher dominates the city from a distance of about three miles.


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(4) Puli-Khumri to Khanabad: (Distance about 70 miles).
At Puli-Khumri the Kabul-Mazar road branches off. One turns right and via Baghlan leads to Khanabad. Baghlan is now the centre of the Kataghan province. It is newly built and well-laid out and has a big sugar factory, the annual output of which is about 4,000 tons. The road from Puli-Khumri to Baghlan is level, but between Baghlan and Khanabad there are some low hills. From Khanabad roads lead in various directions. One goes to Taluqan, while a second runs straight north to Kunduz, and from there to Hazrat-i-Imam on the Oxus, beyond which lies the district of Badakhshan, a country of numerous lofty mountains in whose bosom some very fine valleys are located. To some people, this small and enchanting mountain district has an attraction of an almost unique kind.

Winters are severe, the passes are blocked with snow, and the streams are frozen over, but summers are genial. Rainfall, owing to the presence of forests, is sufficient.

Badakhsan has considerable mineral wealth. Salt deposits and rubies, lapis-lazuli and sulphur mines are known to exist in several places. Badakhshan was famous for its lapis-lazuli some three thousand years before the Christian era and had a brisk trade with China, Bokhara, and other countries of western Asia, even as far as Egypt. Another article of export was rubies, which have furnished the poets with many a simile. Marco Polo, the Venetian traveller of the 13th century, fully appreciated these beautiful rubies. He also speaks of "the finest azure in the world." The mines of Lapis-lazuli (Lajaward) are still worked. Grain mills, driven by water, are very frequently met with in this area. The mountaineers have taken full advantage of this natural source of power. Gushing streams are to be seen in all directions.


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Badakhshan is also very famous for its delicious fruits, especially apples and pears.

Faizabad, the capital city of the district, lies some 120 miles north of Khanabad and is approached by a motor-road.

Further east the Alpine territory of Wakhan is situated. Owing to the difficult nature of the country, Wakhan is nearly an isolated part of Afghanistan. It consists of two upland valleys which are watered by the Panja. The valleys are hemmed in on either side by lofty mountains. Those to the south form the northern section of the Hindu Kush, and are here crossed by very difficult passes, the easiest of which is the Broghil (12,460 ft.) leading to Chitral and Gilgit. The chief resources of people are derived from the flocks of Tibetan Yak. Wakhan is too elevated and sterile for tillage. The lowest hamlet in this district is at an elevation of 8,000 ft; the highest is no less than 11,000 ft. above sea-level. In some of the lower districts peas and barley are cultivated to a very limited extent. In April the seed is planted and in July the harvest is reaped.

(5) Kabul to Kandahar (315 miles); (a) Kabul to Ghazni: 90 miles); (b) Ghazni to Mukur : 68 miles; (c) Mukur to Kalat-i-Ghilzai : 73 miles; (d) Kalat-i-Ghilzai to Kandahar : 84 miles.

Kabul to Ghazni (90 miles) :

(1) The first stage is Arghandi, which lies 14 miles west of Kabul. The road for the first six or seven miles runs through the highly cultivated valley of Chardeh. Beyond Mehtab Qala there is a gradual ascent over a rough stony road to a point within three miles of Arghandi, where there is a gradual descent. Arghandi is higher than Kabul by 628 feet.


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(2) Arghandi to Maidan (12 miles). The road is generally level but there are some sharp turns. Maidan is a very fertile and beautiful tract of land. It is low and level and is surrounded on two sides by high snow-covered mountains. It is intersected by numerous streams mostly cut from the river Kabul.

(3) Maidan to Sheikhabad (17 miles). The road is generally level and offers no particular difficulty. After crossing a small river Sheikhabad is reached, which is halfway between Ghazni and Kabul. Here begins the country of Wardak which abounds in beautiful valleys.

(4) Sheikhabad to Takyah (14 miles). A few easy ascents and descents but on the whole the road presents no special difficulty.

(5) Takyah to Shishgao (16 miles). There is a gradual ascent until Shishgao (8,500 feet above sea-level) is reached. The country in the vicinity is generally fertile but there is a great shortage of water. A few streams intersect the valley. Trees are few and far between. Shishgao is extremely cold in winter and blizzards are very common.

(6) Shishgao to Ghazni (17 miles). There is again a steady ascent till a pass is reached which is some 9,000 feet above sea-level. During winter the pass is often blocked with snow, and communication between Kabul and Ghazni is interrupted for a few days.

Ghazni: The capital of the Ghaznavides and the principal point between Kabul and Kandahar occupies an important commercial as well as strategical position, since it commands the roads passing through the Gomal, Tochi and Peiwar passes.


د ابن سينا بنو نځی
EBNI-SEENA

Ebn-i-Seena Junior High School, Kabul.


An old mud fort near Bush, Kandahar Province.


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The old town of Ghazni is built upon an isolated ridge,
a natural mound, partly rock and partly earth. It is surrounded
by a high ditch-wall, having a circuit of about a mile and a
half. The form of the town is a sort of irregular square, the
well being built so as to suit the outline of the mound on which
it rests. The foundation of the wall is a little above the surround-
ing country, and as it winds round the hill, it presents a very
formidable appearance. The mound which it encircles resembles
a fortress of which the citadel is the apex.
Unfortunately, the bitter feud between the Ghazavides and
the princes of Ghore during the of middle the 12th century A. D.
had tragic effects upon beautiful Ghazni, the capital of Sultan
Mahmoud (998—1030). Ala-ud-din of Ghore entered the city
triumphantly in 1148 and gave it up to massacre and destruction.
Nothing was spared except the tombs of Sultan Mahmoud,
Masoud and Ibrahim. The city was set on fire and most of the
splendid buildings were razed to the ground. Since then Ghazni
has not been able to attain its former glory.
The present town of Ghazni is in no way attractive, with
scarcely a shadow of its past grandeur. It is small and congested
with narrow lanes, not worthy of its great name. But Ghazni is
still famous for its shrines and other archæological remains.
The most notable of these shrines are those of Sultan Subaktagin
(977-997), Sultan Mahmoud-i-Ghaznavi (998-1030), Masoud
(1030-1040), Bahram Shah (1117-1153), Hakim Senai, the well-
known Sofi-poet, Ali-Lala, Bahlol-i-Dana, and Sayyed Hassan.
Recently, a few miles to the east of Ghani, at a place called
Dehak, the tomb of Mohammad Ghori was discovered.
Two pillars, tapering to the sky between Ghazni and the
Rowza (Sultan Mahmoud's tomb), are all that are left of its past
grandeur and glory.


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The country around Ghazni is extremely fertile. There are innumerable orchards and vineyards. All sorts of fruits are produced in great abundance. Of these mention should be made of plums (alu-Bokhara), which constitute the chief article of export from this district. In addition to the land under cultivation, there are rich pastures. The climate of Ghazni is very pleasant in summer, the heat being less than that of Kabul. Ghazni is also noted for its posteens (sheepskin coats) and copper utensils.

Sultan Mahmoud's memory is still preserved by a dam to the west of the city on the River Ghazni. It is still termed "Band-i-Sultan", or the "Dam of the Sultan". The Bund had fallen into decay, but was recently rebuilt and enlarged.

The foundation of a new city has been laid on the southern side of the rampart and the construction work is going on steadily.

Ghazni to Kandahar (225 miles) : For the greater part the road is level and runs from north-east to south-west. Villages are few and far between and the scenery is generally dull and monotonous. From Ghazni to Kalat-i-Ghilzai the road descends gradually. On leaving Ghazni, the road goes along the Tarnak valley, which is generally narrow. As it approaches Kandahar, it expands greatly till it attains a breadth of no less than thirty miles. The highest of the peaks which overlook this valley do not exceed 6,000 ft. The valley, though level for the most part, is in general shut in by a series of low rolling hills rising from the banks of the Tarnak River. These hills are mostly bare and very uninteresting, having a scanty covering of low thorny bushes in some places. The open portions of the valley are fertile and well-cultivated wherever water is procurable. Irrigation is mostly carried on by means of Karezes (underground channels).


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(b) Ghazni to Mukur (68 miles): The road lies directly to the south, and skirts the hilly tract at the base of the Gal Range. The first stage is Nani, after which the road runs through a spacious plain called Dasht-i-Shilgar. The country on the whole is barren and sandy. Water is scarce and cultivation depends mostly on sub-terranean channels (Karez). At Mukur itself cultivation is more advanced and all sorts of provisions are procurable. Here is a rest house too.

(c) Mukur to Kalat-i-Ghilzai (73 miles): The road for the first 14 miles leads to a grassy tract with low hills on either side. The country here is an open plateau, skirted by small hills. It is fertile and well-cultivated. From Aghojan onwards the road passes through an undulating wilderness traversed by ravines.

Some ten miles from Kalat-i-Ghilzai, the road runs along the Tarnak River, the banks of which are covered with orchards, specially almond trees. At Kalat there is a strong fortress, situated on a high cliff on the right bank of the Tarnak. It is 5,540 feet above sea-level and has a decent rest house. In winter, snow generally falls as far as Kalat, beyond that the road descends abruptly.

(d) Kalat-Ghilzai to Kandahar (84 miles): From here Kandahar lies due south-west. Till Jaldak (14 miles) the road lies over an uneven plain, a small strip on either side of the Tarnak river being under cultivation. Jaldak lies on a sandy soil, dotted with patches of brush-wood.

From Jaldak onwards the general character of the country remains the same. All along the road the eye can meet extensive orchards, producing some of the fine fruits for which Kandahar has attained a world-wide fame. The water of the


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river Tarnak seems to be almost exhausted. The last stage is Mohmand, only ten miles from Kandahar. Here begins the proper plain of Kandahar. About two miles outside the city there is a beautiful garden, called Manzil Bagh, which is now the headquarters of Morrison-Knudsen Engineering Company.

Kandahar (Height 3,500 ft., population 100,000): Kandahar, the capital of Ahmad Shah Durrani, is 125 miles from Quetta and only 70 miles from the railway terminus of New Chaman. It is, of course, a point of great commercial and strategical importance, and has played an important role in the history of the country. It is situated on a level and richly cultivated plain of Arachosia (or Arakosia) at the foot of Tarnak Valley, and is separated from the river of that name by a short range of hills which divides the lower part of the valley and runs parallel with the river for about twenty miles. These hills are called Torkani, that is, Black Stone, and attain a height of some 1,000 feet above the plain. The city of Kandahar is surrounded on two sides, north and west, by high, bare and sharp-pointed rocky mountains rising abruptly from the plain. They have very curious shapes and names and are called “The Elephant”, “The Camel”, “The Ant-Heap” etc., and indeed they deserve these names. The old city of Kandahar is large, populous and well planned. It is four-sided and rectangular in shape, 2,000 by 600 yards, the length being north to south. The streets are straight, wide and flanked by trees. It is an active commercial and industrial centre, and has undergone most radical changes during the last twenty years. If one walks along the main streets, one cannot recognise the Kandahar described by travellers of old. A new city with fine buildings and up-to-date facilities has sprung up outside the walled city of Kandahar on the road leading to Herat.


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The Kandaharis are strikingly handsome-tall, strong and well-built, and are among the finest specimens of the human race. In winter they are peculiarly picturesque, wearing their Kosai, long heavy coats of white coarse felt richly decorated with gold and coloured embroidery, and curious cut-out lattice work at the end of the sleeves, which hang loosely to the ground. It would be worthwhile to make a close study of the traditional designs of these embroideries, which certainly go back to a very remote antiquity; solar emblems in the form of a cross or of a disc are particulary frequent.

Kandahar was the capital of Afghanistan during the palmy days of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747—1773 A. D.), who had several times carried his arms victoriously into the plains of India, Persia and Bokhara. His mausoleum in Kandahar is an imposing structure. Its gilded dome is encompassed by beautiful minarets. It towers above the surrounding buildings and attracts the attention of travellers from a great distance.

Beyond the town, in the direction of Grishk, the ruins of Old Kandahar, destroyed by Nadir Shah Afshar, are to be seen. Here a curious relic of the past called the "Chihil-Zeena" (Forty Steps) also attracts the attention of the visitor. A steep stair-case, roughly hewn into the face of a rock, leads to a little niche, called the Throne of Babur. Inside the niche there is a Persian inscription mentioning the name of that King and the date when he took Kandahar. It is a sort of victory memorial.

At Kohkaran, not far from the city, on the road leading to Herat, lies the tomb of the great Ghilzai hero, Mir Vais Hotaki, who led the rebellion of his tribe against Persian rule and made Kandahar independent by massacring Gurgin, the Persian governor of the province (1709 A.D.). Later on (in 1722)


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his son and successor, Mir Mahmoud, led an expedition into the heart of Persia, took Isfahan and overthrew the Saffavid dynasty.

Further along the road leading to Grishk, and a few miles north of Kushk-i-Nakhud (halfway between Grishk and Kandahar) stands a beautiful column commemorating the crushing defeat sustained by the British army (under Major General Burrows) at the hands of Sardar Mohammad Ayoub Khan, son of Amir Sher Ali Khan (July 27, 1880), in the course of the Second Anglo-Afghan War.

Kandahar is also famous for its fine gardens and orchards. Of these mention should be made of Baba Wali and Sardeh, situated in the beautiful valley of Arghandab. Besides these places for excursions, the surrounding country of Kandahar is extremely rich in archæological remains, foremost among these being the ruins of Bust, lying west at the junction of the Arghandab and the Helmund. Relics of Lashkargah, the winter capital of Sultan Masoud, son of Sultan Mahmoud of Ghazni, are also located here. The foundation of a new modern city at Lashkargah, is laid close to it.

(6) Kandahar to Kala-i-Jadid (or Speen-Boldak) ; distance 65 miles: The road for a distance of 12 miles leads straight across a tolerably fertile and well-populated country. The bed of the Tarnak is crossed en route. After this the road, though level, is often broken into ravines, and fertility ceases. The road goes through a small pass, and then descends into the valley of Dori. Here all cultivation disappears. Even the water of the river, though abundant, is saline. Its banks are unfertile, and there is no grass and little cultivation. From Takhta-Pul (35 miles from Kandahar) onwards the road crosses a barren country


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until it reaches Kala-i-Jadid (the New Fort), facing New
Chaman, a terminus of the North-Western Railway. Here
passports and luggage are examined.

Recently a new road was completed between Kandahar
and Kala-i-Jadid. This road is broad and well-laid out, and
the distance can now be easily covered within two hours by car.

(7) Kandahar to Herat (distance 407 miles): Herat the
western most province of Afghanistan, is reached from Kandahar
by way of Grishk, Farah and Sabzawar (or Sheen Dand). The
road for the most part runs over a level but sandy plain; water
is generally scarce.

(1) Kandahar to Grishk (75 miles): The road is generally
level. Grishk lies at the distance of a mile on the right bank of
the Helmund. The Helmund or Etamandros of the classical
writers is the largest inland river of Afganistan. Numerous
ruined cities and forts are to be a seen all along the banks of the
river, Bust and Lashkargah being the most important of these.
Six miles from Kandahar the river Arghandab is crossed. Mid-
way between Grishk and Kandahar, a few miles north of the
present road, lies the historic plain of Maiwand. There are some
charming gardens and orchards along the banks of the Helmund.
Villages are numerous and every one is a thriving centre. The
pasturage, too, is rich and abundant, and the agricultural
capacity of the Zamindawar lands (70 miles north of Grishk
along the Helmund) is well-known.

The Helmund, like most of the rivers of Afghanistan, has
a seasonal flow. During early spring it rises in flood with the
melting of the snow, and often attains a breadth of more than
a mile. Recently the Afghan Government, with a view to


controlling the floods and utilising this surplus water, constructed
a massive dam at Kajaki, some fifty miles north of Grishk, on
the Helmund River. This new project will irrigate no less than
3,000,000 acres of waste land and has a capacity of generating
120,000 KW of electricity. A second Dam was constructed,
some 25 miles north of Kandahar, on the Arghandab River.
Besides storing water for irrigation during summer months this
Dam has also a capacity of generating some 6,500 KW of
electricity. These two dams, with the Boghra Canal, which are
now nearly complete, will greatly enhance the material pros
perity of the whole area. The work is carried on by a well
known American firm, Morrison-Knudsen by name.

Grishk is now the capital of the new province in the south
west of Afghanistan, covering the new irrigation areas served by
this irrigation system.

(2) Grishk to Farah (158 miles. Grishk to Dilaram 75 miles,
Dilaram to Farah 83 miles): The road is generally level, lack of
water is an unpleasant aspect of this route. En route lies the
Bukwa Plain—a level stretch without trees or growth of any kind
to break the monotony of the journey. Dilaram (Peace of Mind)
is a small halting place en route.

Farah, the provincial capital, is 2,460 feet above sea-level,
and lies 174 miles south of Herat. It is enclosed by a rampart,
crowned with towers, and surrounded by a wide, deep ditch.
Though much in ruins, its strategical importance is in no way
diminished, as it commands the Kandahar—Herat route and
the northern entrance to Seistan.

The province of Farah occupies the south-westerly corner
of Afghanistan, and includes, besides Farah proper, the district


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of Chakhansoor (or Seistan). It is mostly barren and unpro-
ductive, but in days which cannot be said to be very old, it was
a prosperous country and had a fine system of irrigation. The
Mughal depredations early in the 13th century A.D. wiped out
these fine irrigation works, thus turning the smiling face of the
country into a wilderness. The present Afghan Government is
once more trying to irrigate these lands. The construction of
the Kajaki Dam and the digging of the Boghra Canal are a part
of this new programme. It is hoped that the Kajaki Dam will
store sufficient water to increase the irrigation of Chakhansoor.

Farah to Sabzawar (94 miles): Three rivers—the Farah,
Khash-Rud and the Harut are crossed en route. The banks of
the Farah are covered with a jungle growth of tamarisk and
mimosa. The country between Farah and Sabzawar is a vast
jumble of ridges and low rolling hills, with small plains
inhabited mostly by nomadic tribes.

Sabzawar (altitude 3,350 feet): This is an important post
on the Herat-Kabul route, situated midway between Farah and
Herat. It stands on the left bank of the Harut River, at the
foot of an outlying spur of the Siah Koh (the Black Mountain).
Beyond and partly surrounding it is a wide open plain, well-
irrigated from the waters of the Harut, and it is in consequence
highly productive.

Sabzawar to Herat (80 miles): Due north, and at a
distance of 80 miles lies Herat, one of the most important cities
of Afghanistan.

HERAT (Height 3,030 ft. above sea-level) ; population:
100,000, The town of Herat lies on the right bank of the Hari
Rud (Arius of the classical writers). Its strategical and com-
mercial importance is scarcely to be underrated, for here


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converge the important routes from the Caspian, Merve, Bokhara, Maimanah, Kandahar and Meshed. The old city is still surrounded by massive mudwalls, and is guarded by a grim-looking citadel. Inside the walls Herat has changed a good deal, and the hand of progress is clearly felt. The old caravan bazaar has been replaced by neat rows of shops on both sides of long straight avenues. Modern buildings have sprung up everywhere, and the New Town (Shahr-i-Nao), outside the city, is progressing steadily.

The most important place in the old city is the citadel, standing in the centre of the town on a height towering over the rest of the city. From here a capital view is obtained of the country beyond. Of the original buildings of Iftikharuddin probably only the north-west corner tower remains. In later Timurid times it was covered with glazed tiles of which a few remain on the lower belt. The rest of the castle was rebuilt at the end of the 17th century.

The only other building in the city noticeable for its size and height is the Jama Masjid, a large, lofty, arched structure in the north-eastern portion of the city. Its original plan is very old; it was laid down by Ghiasuddin of Ghor. It was then one of the most beautiful mosques ever built in Asia, adorned as it was with most magnificent carvings, precious mosaics, and other elaborate and costly embellishments. Later repairs have not very much altered its austere lines. On the sides of the four "aiwans" gorgeous panellings of glazed tiles of the best Timurid workmanship, predominantly green and blue with the grandeur of their Arabic inscriptions, are still to be seen. In the corner of the central aiwan stands one of the treasures of Herat—a huge bronze cauldron of exquisite Timurid workmanship. Its shape,


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the delicate carving of the Persian inscriptions, and its soft green
patina are beyond praise.

There is no more glorious period in the history of Muslim
architecture than that of the Timurids of the fifteenth century.
It has been properly called the "Renaissance of Art in the East".
This brilliant renaissance with its centre in Herat was not
surpassed by a similar "Rebirth" in Europe which followed the
Dark Ages. The greatest painter of this period was Kamaluddin
Bihzad, who worked at the Court of Sultan Hussain (1469-1506
A.D.), and painted two portraits of the Sultan, which are
generally regarded as his master-pieces. Similarly, his miniatures
most of which are preserved in the British Museum, have world-
wide fame.

Besides paintings and miniature, other fine arts also attained
high perfection under the patronage of the Timurids. Never
were the glazed tiles and faience mosaics made in greater perfec-
tion, or employed to greater advantage. The main features of
the style are the huge-vaulted arches, the melon-shaped domes
and the minarets, all faced with vari-coloured tiles and calligraphic
ornamentations. Of palaces, and other royal residences,
few examples remain, and only a few minarets, shrines, a mosque
and a college are all that have survived the ravages of time.

It was the Timurides who gave the first real impetus to
miniature painting. During the reign of Shah Rukh (1405-1447
A.D.), Baisunqar Mirza founded an academy in Herat in which
the arts of painting, book-binding, especially miniature-painting,
and calligraphy were zealously studied and encouraged. This
academy attained its most flourishing period under Sultan Hussain
Baiqara, patron of the most famous miniaturist and painter,
Bihzad.


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At the north of the town, in a grove of umbrella pines, lies the Gaz-ir-Gah Sharif, the resting place of Hazrat Khwaja Abdullah Ansar, a well-known Muslim divine and Sofi-poet. The shrine is distinguishable from afar by a huge lofty square-topped mass of building over a high arch. This shrine is well worth a visit, for it displays the art of glazed tiles of all possible shades and patterns, all of them gorgeous and yet full of delicate taste. The great aiwan, tiled from top to bottom, shows traces of Chinese influence in the arrangement of Kufi characters. Timurlane (Tamerlane) died before he could begin the conquest of China, but the craftsmen he attracted from China to Samar-kand have had a great influence in certain manifestations of Timurid art—miniature painting in particular. Among the many beautiful carved tombstones of the courtyard one notices a great rectangular blockstone. This is the tomb of Shah Rukh, carved in the intricate flower pattern, peculiar to the Herat School, in the style called Haft-Qalam, which means that the stone is carved on seven different planes.

But the jewel of Herat is the Mussalla, a group of beautiful buildings outside the city, now in ruins. It consisted of three buildings running north-east and south-west, and covering a distance of six hundred yards from end to end. Of the eastern building, known generally as the Madressah or College, nothing but four minarets remain. The arches, covered with the remains of what once was fine tile work of the most beautiful and artistic design, are now much defaced. The tiles on the minarets, too, have mostly been worn off by the vagaries of weather, but inside the arches the beautiful mosaic work is still in many places almost perfect sufficient to give an idea of the splendour of the building when new. The minarets of the Madressah are taller than the rest, and are about 150 feet in height. Up to the late


220

nineties, the Mussalla stood in fairly good condition and, only during the political scare following the "Panjdeh Incident" did Amir Abdur Rahman Khan, under the advice of British engineers, pull it down for strategic reasons. Recently one of the remaining minarets also fell to the ground.

Between the Madressah and the Mussalla is a domed building. This is the tomb of Gohar Shad, the gifted Queen of Shah Rukh. The melon-shaped ribbed dome of the tomb is covered with tiles of wonderful turquoise-blue. If one sees it at sunset under the slanting rays of the sun, it is rather difficult to forget it. There are still enough tiles left on the minarets to give an idea of the techniques of those palmy days. It is a kind of cloisonne work, the partition being of white marble with scrolls of text from the Quran filled up with coloured tiles.

If, after seeing the Mussallah, the visitor could take a look at some of the paintings of Bihzad, he might begin to understand what the Herat of Hussain Baiqara was like. In the course of a few generations, the race of Tamerlane had lost the savage energy of its founder, and devoted themselves zealously to the advancement of arts and crafts. So powerful was the impetus derived from the Timurids that it lasted through a greater portion of the sixteenth century, and influenced Persia under the Saffavids, and India under the Mughals. Babur, who visited Herat shortly before the crumbling of the Timurid Empire under the onslaught of the Uzbek Shaibani Khan, has described in vivid terms the court of Sultan Hussain Baiqra. This description might best be summarised by paraphrasing the famous saying of Talleyran: "He who has not lived in the Herat of Hussain Baiqra, does not know the joy of life". India must not forget that the best that the great Emperors of the House of Timur have


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brought her in the way of art and civilization has been inspired
by the Herat of Hussain Baiqra.

Herat is also noted for the beauty of its gardens. The
most important of these are: Takht-i-Safar, Bagh-i-Shahi,
Bagh-i-Kurta, Bagh-i-Rubat-i-Ghorian, Bagh-i-Maulana Jami,
and Bagh-i-Qalicha. A great variety of game—deer, pheasants,
patridges, markhor, hare and various kinds of birds are found
along the mountain sides and in the neighbouring plains.
Water fowls are abundant at Rubat-i-Ghorian, Kolijang and
Ab-i-Jalil.

Other places of interest in the province are: Kaminij,
Dar-i-Takht, Obeh, Saioshan and Badghisat. Of the natural
beauty of the last mentioned locality it is said that Nasr II, the
Samanid Prince of Bokhara (913-943) once happened to visit the
place. He was so charmed by it that he would not quit it for
full two years. The courtiers then approached Rudaki, the
Poet-Laureate, to induce the King to return to Bokhara. At the
request of the courtiers, Rodaki improvised a poem and when he
recited it before the Prince, it is said, that Nasr was so moved
that he came down from the throne, mounted the horse of a
sentinel on duty and set off for Bokhara in such haste that he
did not even care to put on his boots. The poem runs thus:
The Ju-i-Muliyan we call to mind,
We long for those dear friends long left behind;
The sands of Oxus, toilsome though they may be,
Beneath my feet were soft as silk to me.
Glad at the return of friends, the Oxus deep
Up to our girths the laughing waves shall leap.
Long live Bokhara ! Be thou of good cheer !
Joyous towards thee hasteth our Amir.
The moon's the Prince, Bukhara is the sky;


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O sky ! the Moon shall light thee by and by.
Bokhara is the mead, the cypress he ;
Receive at last, O Mead, the cypress tree.

From Herat a road leads to the Iranian border. This road running due west leads via Ghorian (Zindajan or Phooshanj of old) to Islam Qala (old name: Kafir Qala), facing Yusufabad and Karez, Iranian border posts. The distance between Herat and the Persian border is a little less than 100 miles.

Kabul to Gardez: (80 miles) The road via Charasia, Mohammad-Agha and Hissarak (all in the Lohgar valley) leads to the Altamur Pass. There is a steep ascent, and the road skirts difficult hills, often blocked with snow during winter months. After crossing the Pass there is a steady descent till Gardez is reached.

Gardez is an important strategical town of Southern Afghanistan and guards the roads from Urgun, Khost, Ghazni and Lohgar. It is the provincial capital. From here roads radiate in different directions; one goes to Khost, another leads to Ghazni, a third to Urgun, a fourth to Chamkani, and a fifth to Jaji country bordering the Kurram valley.


223

Distances of Important Places from Kabul (in English miles)

Kabul to Baghlan ... ... 274
 Balkh ... ... 401
 Bamian ... ... 145
 Charikar ... ... 40
 Faizabad ... ... 460
 Farah ... ... 528
 Gardez ... ... 80
 Ghazni ... ... 90
 Girishk ... ... 390
 Gul Bahar ... ... 50
 Herat, via Kandahar ... ... 722
 Istaliff ... ... 33
 Jabalus-Seradj ... ... 45
 Jalalabad ... ... 90
 Kandhar ... ... 315
 Khanabad ... ... 323
 Kanduz ... ... 339
 Maimanah, via Mazar ... ... 607
 Mazar-i-Sharif ... ... 389
 Mukur ... ... 158
 Paghman ... ... 18


Munar-i-Chakari, near Kabul.
Reminiscence of pre-Islamic days.


Afghan Architecture of the Mediaeval Muslim period.


224

PART—EIGHT

Chronology of Important Events connected with the history of Afghanistan

(I) Pre-Islamic Period :

c. 3000 B.C. : First settlement of the Aryans at Bakhdi (modern Balkh). We do not know much about the original home of the Aryans. Bactrai, Chinese Turkestan, the Pamirs, Germany, the plains of the Middle Danube, the Steppes of Southern Russia and even Western Siberia have all been suggested as the original habitat of these Indo-European races. According to Avesta, this original home of the Aryans (Aryana-Vaejo as it is called) was a region of delight, a kind of earthly paradise. Some geological convulsions changed the climate of this country, and the primeval happy home of the Aryans became suddenly very cold and sullen, which induced the migration of the Aryans to neighbouring countries. According to other traditions, the original home of the Aryans (Arya-Vesta, Arya-Varstha or Arya-Versha, as it is variously called, meaning the Abode of Honourable Men) seems to be the country watered by the Oxus and the Murghab, and bounded by the Caspian Sea on the west, the Hindukush on the south, the Kailas range on the east and the Kizil-Kum and other sandy deserts on the north. It was at Bakhdi, northern Afghanistan, that the Aryan


225

settlers for the first time took to a settled life and
laid the foundation of a rudimentary form of
democratic government (about 3000 B.C.)

c. 2500 to
c. 1500 B. C.

General migration of the Aryans from Northern
Afghanistan to India, Media, Fars and other parts
of the world.

c. 2000 to
c. 1400 B. C :

Rigvedic hymns composed in the Indus valley.
The Indo-Aryans at the time when the hymns of
Rigveda arose had not yet spread over the plains
of Northern India; rather we find them still
domiciled in the valleys of the Indus Basin.
That the home of the Indo-Aryans at the time of
the composition of the early hymns of the
Rigveda was the region indicated above is
further borne out (1) by topographical
consideration, foremost among these being the
names of the rivers mentioned in the Rigveda,
such as the Kubha (Kabul), the Suwasti (Swat),
the Krumu (Kurram) the Gomati (Gomal) and
the Sindhu (Indus) ; and (2) by climatic consi-
derations and the flora and fauna of the
country mentioned in these poems. The animal
and plant worlds of Rigveda are quite differ-
ent from those of India.

c. 1000 B.C. :

It was during the reign of Gustasp (about 1000
B.C.) that legends place the death of Spitama
Zarathushtra, whom we speak of as Zardusht or
Zoroaster, and whom most of the classical and
Oriental writers agree was a native of Bactria
(modern Balkh).


226

745-725 B.C: Tiglath-Pilser II, King of Assyria extends his
empire to Arakosia (Arachosia, modern
Kandahar).

577 B.C: Birth of Sidhartha or Gautama Buddha. The
sixth century B.C. is indeed a most remarkable
epoch in the world's history. It sees spiritual
renovation in countries as far apart as Greece,
Palestine, India, China and Persia. In India
there appears a great teacher and reformer,
who revolutionizes the religious thought and
feeling not only of India but of the Central and
Eastern Asian countries as well. Buddhism
finds its way to Afghanistan in the middle of the
third century B.C., during the reign of Asoka
the Great.

558 B.C: Cyrus (Kai-Khusro or Kurush), King of Fars,
lays the foundation of the Achaemenid Empire.

549-545 B. C: Cyrus is occupied with the conquest of Aryana
(Ancient Afghanistan). He is finally killed in
one of these battles (529 B.C.)

518 B. C. Darius Hystaspes (or Drayavush Vishtasp) King
of Fars, ventures further eastwards than Cyrus
and conquers the right bank of the Indus.

517 B. C: Skylax, the Greek, explores the lower course of
the Indus.

480 B. C: The Indus valley practically becomes independ
ent on the defeat of Xerxes by the Greeks.

336 B. C: Accession to the throne of Alexander the Great.

334 B. C: Alexander in pursuit of his father's plan launches
his attack and crosses the Hellespont (now
Dardanelles) into Asia Minor.


227

334-333 B. C : Alexander conquers Asia Minor.

333 B. C : The Battle of Arbela. Darius is again defeated and intends to take refuge in distant Bactria.

330 B. C : Alexander decides to pursue the hapless Persian monarch into Aryana. Bessus, the governor of Bactria, availing of the opportunity, assumes the title of Great King and makes a prisoner of the Persian king. Alexander makes a supreme effort to come to his assistance. But in the vicinity of Damaghan he comes across a wagon containing the dead body of the luckless monarch.

At Susia (Tus) Satibarzanes, the Satrap of of Aeria (modern Herat) tenders his submission and is reappointed as the governor of the province.

328 B. C : Alexander marches through Aeria, Prophthasia (now Farah) Drangiana or Zarangiana (modern Seistan) and Arachosia (the Kandahar Province) where he lays the foundation of another Alexandria (Probably modern city of Kandahar). He then turns towards the north following the route to Kabul and comes to the foot of the Hindu-kush (in the vicinity of Charikar or Jabalus-Seradj) where he founds the city of Alexandria ad Caucasum, which he garrisons with Macedonian colonists.

328 B. C. Early in 328 B. B., Alexander crosses the Hindukush into Bactria. Crossing the lofty range, the Macedonian army suffers great losses on


228

account of cold and scarcity of supplies,
especially fuel. Alexander pursues Bessus across
the Oxus. Bessus is finally betrayed by Apita-
menes, commander of the Sogdian cavalry, and is
handed over to Alexander. He is then put to
death in a most cruel and barbarous manner.

Alexander advances as far as the Jaxartes,
where he founds Alexandria Eschate, the
modern Khojend.

327 B. C.
Alexander returns to Bactria, where he begins
preparations for the projected expedition into
India.

326 B. C.
Alexander crosses the Indus into India near
modern Attock and receives the submission of
Ambhi, King of Taxila (spring 326 B.C.).
Leaving Taxila, Alexander marches towards the
Hydaspes (the Jhelum) where Porus, King of the
Punjab, makes a bold stand. Finally he is
defeated and made a prisoner. Alexander,
displaying generosity to the captured monarch,
restores him to his power. Alexander marches
ahead with the intention of attacking another
monarch more powerful than Porus. All his
attempts to induce his soldiers to proceed further
proves ineffectual. He therefore gives order for
retreat and returns to his newly-founded cities
of Nicae and Bucephala on the Hydaspes.
He sails down to the mouth of the Indus, and
thence proceeds towards Persia through the
burning deserts of Gedrosia (Baluchistan).


229

The march through this inhospitable region lasts sixty days, during which many of the soldiers perish from fatigue or disease.

324 B. C :
Alexander reaches Babylonia, where ambassadors from various countries assemble to pay him homage. His mind is still occupied with plans of conquests. His next design is the subjugation of Arabia. Preparations are made. Suddenly he is taken ill with fever and dies on the 28th of June, 323 B.C., at the early age of 33.

321 B. C.
Second partition of the Macedonian Empire ; Seleucus Nicator obtains Babylon, Syria, Persia and Aryana.

320 B. C.
Chandragupta Maurya lays the foundation of a powerful kingdom in Northern India.

317 B. C.
Eudamus, Greek governor, withdraws from the Indus valley and Chandragupta makes himself master of the Punjab.

305-302 B. C.
Seleucus, in his eagerness to equal his former master, crosses the Indus into India. But he is defeated by Chandragupta and has to return home after concluding a hasty peace, by which he surrenders the provinces of Parapomisadae, Arachosia, Gedrosia and a part of Aeria to the Indian monarch and receives only 500 war elephants in exchange for all these concessions.

298 B. C.
Accession of Bhindusara, son of Chandragupta, to the Mauryan throne. During his reign his


230

son Asoka is appointed Viceroy of Northern India.
272 B. C. Accession of Asoka to the Mauryan throne.
c. 250 B. C. Bactria and Parthia assert their independence. Diododotus I, Governor of Bactria, lays the foundation of the Græco-Bactrian Kingdom at Balkh.
c. 240-230 B. C. Diodotus II rules over Bactria and Sogdiana.
232 B. C. Death of Asoka; break-up of the Mauryan Empire begins.
c. 227-189 B. C. Eutheydemus, King of Aryana.
212-206 B. C. About 212 B. C., Antiochus III appears in the east at the head of a large army determined to reassert the Selucid supremacy over the rebel-lious kingdoms of Parthia and Bactria. After reducing Parthia he turns his arms against Bactria (208 B. C.). After a siege of two years he is forced to conclude a peace and give his daughter in marriage to Demetrius, son of Eutheydemus.
206 B. C. Eutheydemus avails himself of the break-up of the Mauryan Empire and conquers the whole of Eastern and Southern Afghanistan.
c. 189-167 B. C. Demetrius, King of Aryana, extends his empire as far as Pataliputra and Malwa and adopts the proud title of "Invinctus," that is Invincible, and "King of the Indians".
c. 167 B. C. Eucratides wrests power from Demetrius, first in Bactria and then in Parapomisadae. Ultimate-ly he sustains a crushing defeat at the hands of


231

Menander, one of Demetrius' generals, when he penetrates the Punjab.

c. 147-130 B. C. Helicoles, son of Eucratises is the last Græco-Bactrian king to rule over Bactria. He is defeated by the Scythians, and crossing the Hindukush (in 135 B. C.) comes to Capisia, where he lays the foundation of a new kingdom destined to last for another century.

c. 175 B. C. Inundation of the wild hordes from the north begins with full force. The Huns defeat the Yueh-chi, living in the western corner of Kan-su province. The Yueh-chi, thus dislodged from their original home, come into conflict with other tribes, such as the Wu-sun, inhabiting the valley of Illi, and the Scythians, living north of the Jaxartes. The Scythians unable to stem the tide cross the river and enter Aryana. A second wave drives them forward and they enter Bactria (135 B. C.). The flower of the Bactrian nobles fall fighting and the remnants cross the Hindukush and come to Capisia.

140-130 B. C. The Yueh-chi, driving the Scythians westward, occupy the whole of Northern Afghanistan.

85-80 B. C. Maues, one of the Scythian kings, conquers Taxila.

20-30 A. D. Kingdoms of Arachosia and Taxila are united under one rule by Gondophernes.

35 A. D. Conquest of Kabul valley by Gondophernes.

40 A. D. Visit of St. Thomas, the Apostle, to the court of Gondophernes.


232

c. 40. A. D. Kajula Kadphises lays the foundation of the Kushan dynasty in Northern Afghanistan.
c. 40-78 A. D. Kajula Kadphises takes Gandhara and Taxila.
c. 78-110 A. D. Vima Kadphises takes the whole of northern India as far as Benares, in the east, and the mouth of the Indus, in the west.
c. 110-120 A. D. Sorter Megas (the Great Saviour) rules over India.
c. 120-160 A. D. Kanishka the Great, the third Kushan king, extends his authority over the whole of Northern India as far as Ghazipur and Vindhya Hills. In the north he wages successful wars against China and the wild tribes of Central Asia. Bauddhism makes rapid progress throughout his kingdom. The Mahayana School comes into being.
c. 160-182 A. D. Huvishka, Kanishka's son and successor.
c. 182-220 A. D. Vasudeva, the last king of the dynasty. The break-up of the Kushan Empire begins with his death.
220-425 A. D. A period of chaos and anarchy. Kidara Shahi establishes the kingdom of the Little Kushans.
226 A.D. Ardsher-Babagan founds the Sassanian dynasty of Persia, which lasts till the middle of the 7th century.
319 A. D. Chandragupta I lays the foundation of the Gupta dynasty in India.
405-411 A. D. Fa-Hien, the Chinese traveller, visits India.


233

425 A. D. Invasions of the Ephthalites. They establish a powerful kingdom in Central Asia extending from the Caspian Sea to the confines of China. Bahram Gore of Persia comes into conflict with the Ephthalites near Merv. The Ephthalites are defeated at first and their king, probably Ifathilia is slain. Shortly afterwards, under Mehrpur, they repair their losses and are in a position to assume the offensive. They inflict a crushing defeat on the Persians. Later Akhshnur (or Khushnavaz, as he is sometimes called) defeats Firoz, the Persian king, who sues for terms and gives his daughter in marriage to Akhshnur. He also promises to pay tribute and war indemnity.
Akhshnur is succeeded by his viceroy, Toramana, a remarkable warrior, who conquers the whole of northern and central India.

502 A. D. Death of Toramana and accession of Mihiragula, (or Mihirakula) the last of the line. His death in 542 A. D. shatters the fabric of the Ephthalite Empire and Afghanistan once more faces anarchy and chaos.

520 A. D. Sung Yun, the Chinese pilgrim, visits Gandhara.

553-649 A. D. The Western Turks or Tuokieus make themselves masters of north-eastern Afghanistan. They are soon ousted by the Chinese.

629-645 A.D. Hsuan-Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, visits Afghanistan and India.


234

719 A.D.
The revival of the petty kingdoms called Kushano-Ephthalites in various parts of the country. One of these was Ratbils (called variously Ranbils, Tegin Shahi, Turki Shahi, etc.). The first king of this line, according to Chinese sources, was Tele (Telete or Tekin). Al-Beruni, the great Mohammedan traveller, geographer, philosopher and historian, calls the first king of this line by the name of Beratagin. Again according to him the last king of the line is Lakatorman, who is dethroned by his minister, Kalar, an influential Brahman.

c. 850 A.D.
Kalar lays the foundation of a new dynasty variously called Brahamanshahi, Kabul Shahi, Hindu Shahi and Rayans of Kabul.

c. 871 A.D.
The Kabul Shah (Santa Deva) is made to quit Kabul at the hands of Yakub bin Laith, the founder of the Saffarid dynasty in Seistan. He makes Gardez, in southern Afganistan, his new capital. This, too, is quite a little later when Amro bin Laith leads an expedition into Lohgar and destroys the famous temple at Sakawand (now Sejawand). The Kabul Shahans then move towards the Indus basin and establish their headquarters at Uhind, some 16 miles north of Attock.

570 A.D.
Birth of Mohammed, or the "Praised One", at Mecca.

622 A.D.
The Hijrat, or the "Flight of the Prophet", from Mecca to Yathreb (now Medina).


235

632 A.D. Death of the great Prophet (Monday, 8th June, 632 A.D.).
632-634 A.D. Caliphate of Abu Bakr.
634-644 A.D. Caliphate of Omar.
636 A.D. Battle of Kadessia decides the fate of both Chaldaea and Mesopotamia.
637 A.D. Capture of Madain (Ctesiphon), the Persian capital, by the Arabs.
642 A.D. Battle of Nehavand, called the "Victory of Victories" decides the fate of the Sassanian Empire. Yezdjard, the last king of the dynasty, takes refuge in Khurasan. A contingent of the Arabs, led by Ahnif bin Qais, follows him into that country. Yezdjard is again defeated near Merv. He flees to Tokharistan (now Kataghan) and appeals to the Chinese Emperor for help in his struggle against the Arabs. The Chinese Emperor however is in no mood to send his forces such long distances. In his despair the fugitive monarch comes to Balkh, where he makes his last stand. His forces are again routed and he takes refuge in the Murghab basin, where a little later (in 651 A.D.) he is killed by a millman for his fine apparel.
652 A.D. Abdulla bin Amir, one of the famous Arab generals, leads an expedition into Khorasan. He makes Nishapur his headquarters from where he sends expeditions in various directions. One under Rabi bin Zayad comes to Herat; a second under Abdur Rahman bin Samarah makes for


236

Seistan. From Seistan Abdur Rahman advances
into Zamindawar, where in a temple devoted
to the Sun-god (at Zur or Zuz) he comes across
an idol of pure gold with eyes of ruby.

698 A.D. Abdulla bin Abu Bakr comes with a large force
towards Kabul, but soon finds himself encircled
by his enemies and ultimately is allowed to
return on payment of 700,000 dinars.

700 A.D. Hajjaj bin Yusif sends a contingent of 10,000
men under Abdur Rahman bin Ashas to reduce
Kabul. A severe winter with heavy snow-fall
causes Abdur Rahman to sue for peace and
return with all haste. This is perhaps the last
attempt of the Arabs in this direction.

820-872 A.D. The Tahirids.
Abdulla bin Tahir Zulyamin dying in 844 dur-
ing the reign of Mustasim, the Abbasid Cailph
leaves his province (Herat) in the hands of his
son, Tahir II, who receives the investiture as of
right.
The last king of this line is Mohammed (862—
872).

867-903 A.D. The Saffarids.
In 867 the famous Yakub, son of Laith, the
Coppersmith, conquers Seistan from the Tahirids
and lays the foundation of the Saffarid dynasty.

872 A.D. Yakub drives Mohammed, the grandson of
Tahir, out of Khurasan and extends his power
over the whole of Persia and Afghanistan. He
invades Iraq, but is defeated with heavy losses.


237

He dies in 878 and is succeeded by his brother, Amro bin Laith, who rules until 900.

903 A.D.
Tahir is the last king of this line. The dynasty comes to an end at the hands of the Samanids of Bukhara in 903 A.D.

874-999 A.D.
The Samanids.
The sixth prince of this line, Abdul Malik, has a Turkish slave, Alaptagin by name. He is appointed governor of Khurasan. On the death of his patron in 961, the chief officers of the State assemble to nominate a successor. Alaptagin votes against Mansur, the minor son of the deceased Sultan, who, whoever, ascends the throne by securing the majority of votes in his favour. Whereupon Alaptagin, finding his life in danger, escapes to Ghazni, in the heart of Afghanistan, where he is able to lay the foundation of the famous Ghaznavid dynasty.

977-997 A.D.
Subaktagin, the fifth ruler of this line, extends his frontiers to the Oxus in the north and approximately to the present boundary between Persia and Afghanistan in the west. He also defeats Jaipal twice and occupies the whole of the Peshawar valley.

998-1030 A.D.
Mahmud, son of Subaktagin, is an able and energetic ruler. He invades India no less than 12 times. The second from the last expedition is directed against the celebrated temple of Somanath, on the east coast of Kathiawar. Besides being a great conqeror Mahmud is a patron of art and learning.


[BLANK PAGE]


239

1215 The Ghori dynasty comes to an end. Ghor is
occupied by Alaud-din Mohammed Khwarizm-
shah, who in turn is defeated by Changiz Khan
and driven out of Central Asia.

1218 Changiz Khan invades Transoxiana.

1220 Death of Mohammed Khwarizmshah in the
Island of Ab-i-Sukkon.

1221 Jalalud-din Munkabirni, son of Mohammed
Khwarizmshah, defeats the Mongols at Parwan
Darah, 45 miles north of Kabul.

1226 Destruction of Herat at the hands of the
Mongols.

1227 Death of Changiz Khan.

1227-1241 Ogotoy, son of Changiz, rules as the Great Khan
(Ka-an).

1241-1246 Turakina Khatun rules as a Regent.

1246-1248 Giyuk is the Great Khan of the Mongols.
Upon the death of Giyuk in 1248, Mangu, the
son of Tulu, is elected the Great Khan. He
appoints his brother Kublai to rule the con-
quered provinces of China, where he founds
the Yuen dynasty; while another brother,
Halaku, is appointed ruler of Persia. He
destroys the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 and lays
the foundation of a new dynasty in Persia known
as the Ill-Khans (Local-Khans).

1271-1295 The journey of Marco-Polo through Asia.

1325-1353 Journeys of Shaikh Abu Abdullah, generally
known as Ibn Batuta in Asia. He visits Balkh,


A part of Lashkargah, the winter capital of Sultan Masud (1030-1040 A.D.)


The famous statue of Buddha at Bamian, 53 Meters in height.


240

Herat, Nishapur, Kunduz, Kabul and Ghazni.
THE TIMURIDS
1336 Timur-i-Lang (Tamerlane) is born at Kish.
1389 Tamerlane overthrows the Kurt dynasty of
Herat.
1398 Tamerlane sacks Delhi.
1402 Defeat of Bayazid, the “Thunderbolt” at the
hands of Tamerlane near Ankara.
1405 Tamerlane dies at Otrar.
1405-1519 The Timurids of Herat.
1405-1447 (1) Shah Rukh, son of Tamerlane, rules over a
great part of central Asia from his capital at
Herat. He is a great patron of arts and
learning. His queen, Gohar Shad Agha, is
also an accomplished lady and builds
mosques and colleges. Herat becomes a great
seat of learning.
1447-1449 (2) Ulugh Beg succeeds his father. He, too, is a
talented member of this family. The encour-
agement he gives to his favourite science,
astronomy, has preserved his name as the
author of an accurate and complete
astronomical table known by the name of
Ulugh Beg's Zich.
1449-1450 (3) Abdul Latif.
1452-1467 (4) Abu Saide.
1467-1504 (5) Sultan Hussain Bayaqra is a patron of
scholars. He is the last great king of this
line. His minister, Alisher Nawai, is also
an accomplished scholar.


241
1504-1506
(6) Badi-uz Zaman.
1506-1519
(7) Muzafar Hussain.
The dynasty comes at an end at the hand of
Mohammed Khan Shibani.
THE AFGHAN KINGS OF INDIA
1206-1290 A.D.
(1) The Mamluks.
1290-1321
(2) The Khiljis.
1321-1414
(3) The Tughluks
1414-1451
(4) The Sayids
1450-1526
(5) The Lodis
1540-1555
(6) The Suris
1526-1858
(7) The Mughals
1526-1530
(1) Zahir-ud Din Babar takes Kabul in 1504
and makes it the seat of his government. He
defeats Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526
and enters Delhi triumphantly, where he
lays the foundation of the Mughal dynasty
in India.
1530-1540
(2) Nasir-ud Din Humayun, son of Babar, is
defeated by Sher Shah Suri first at Buxar
(1529) and then at Kanuj (1540). Humayun
then quits India and Sher Shah, ascending
the throne of Delhi, lays the foundation of
the Suri dynasty.
1555-1566
Humayun profits by the confusion and
anarchy prevailing in India after Sher
Shah's death and occupies Delhi and Agra
a second time.


242

1556-1605	(3) Jalalud Din Akbar
1605-1627	(4) Nur-ud Din Jehangir
1627-1658	(5) Shahab-ud Din Shah Jehan
1658-1707	(6) Mohi-ud Din Aurangzeb, the last of the
		Great Mughals.
		(For the chronology of the later period 18th,
		19th and 20th centuries, please refer to Part
		Four “An Historical Sketch”.)


244

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Notes to assist in a Further Knowledge of
the Products of W. Afghanistan and N.E.
Persia.
Akram (Dr. Mohd.). Bibliographic Analytique de l'Afghanistan.
Paris, 1947.
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Guide to Afghanistan. Kabul, 1938.
Commercial Afghanistan. Delhi, 1946.
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Afghanistan : An Historical Sketch.
Kabul, 1957.
Aryana or Ancient Afghanistan.
Kabul, 1957.
Customs and Manners of the Afghans.
Lahore, 1958.
A.I.O.E. Life in the Eagle's Nest. London.
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Andrew (W.P.). India and Her Neighbours. London, 1878.
Our Scientific Frontier (Afghanistan).


245

Anglo-Afghan Trade Convention.
Treaty Series No. 2. 1923.

Anon
Causes of the Afghan War, 1879.
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Anutshin & Borosdin
Afghanistan.
Moscow, 1823.

Arist.
Die Ereignisse in Afghanistan.
Moscow, 1929.

Aristoff (N.A.).
On Afghanistan and its Population. St. Petersburg, 1898.

Ashe (Major)
Personal Records of the Kandahar Campaign by Officers engaged therein.

Atkinson (J)
Sketches in Afghanistan.
London, 1842.

Bachholfer (Ludwing).
Zur Plastik von Hadda.
Zeitschrift, 1931.

Bacon (Elizabeth)
An Inquiry into the History of the Hazara Mongols of Afghanistan, 1951.

Ball (V.)
Geological Notes in the Country of Luni-Pathans, South-east Corner of Afghanistan. Calcutta, 1874.

Balfour (Lady Betty)
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London, 1899.

Balsan (Francois)
Le Monton en Afghanistan et en Baluchistan. Paris, 1937.
De Kabul a la mer d'Oman par le Baluchistan. Paris, 1939.

Barr (Lt.W.)
Kabul and the Punjab.
London, 1844.


246

Journal of a March from Delhi to Peshwar
and thence to Kabul. London, 1844.

Barton (Sir William) India’s North-West Frontier. London, 1939.

Barthous (Jules). Revue des Arts Antique. 1928.
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Toulouse, 1933.
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