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which makes an excellent riding trousers. The milk of the yak is richer than that of the common cow, though the quantity it yields is less.

Birds

There are some 124 species of birds. Goose and duck shooting is excellent in late autumn or early spring. There are several varieties of partridges and pheasants. The Afghan pheasants are good birds of the European type akin to English pheasant, only larger and with more brilliant plumage. These pheasants are very plentiful in northern districts, especially in the marshes on the banks of the Oxus.

Fowls such as hens, ducks, geese and turkeys are reared in large numbers. There are various kinds of pigeons—green, blue and grey, and cooing doves and cuckoos. Besides these, hosts of little birds are to be seen, as well as brilliantly coloured ones, like the golden oriole, the paradise fly-catcher, with its floating tail like a silver ribbon; the king-fisher, and various kinds of finches, bulbuls (nightingales) and song-birds.


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Structure and Minerals

The whole central range resembles the other great mountain chains of the world in that it is a great mass of folded mountains, which arose at the same time as the Alps of Europe, the Himalayas of Asia and the Rockies of North America. It is a type of Tertiary folded mountain chain. In between these folded mountains are blocks of ancient rocks which are said to be extremely rich in metallic minerals. Besides gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, coal, chrome and other useful metals, the country possesses some potentially good oil-fields, mostly situated north of the Hindukush, in the vicinity of Herat, Saripul, Maimanah, Shibarghan and Taluqan.

Afghanistan's reserves of coal are no less than 20,000,000 tons and its reserves of high grade iron are about 3,000,000 tons. This is based on the statement of Mr. C. Watson Owings, American mining engineer, whose services were provided to the Afghan Government by the United States Technical Cooperation Administration.

The figure of 20,000,000 tons is for known coal reserves. Mr. Owings believes that complete geological exploration of the country would result in the discovery of reserves much larger than this.

The largest coal reserves are around Darrah-i-Soof, about 100 miles south of Mazar-i-Sharif. Reserves here are not less than 14,500,000 tons. Mr. Owings says: "Judging from surface out-croppings, the tonnage may be twice as large. About half the coal in these seams appears to be in the Tor Valley, and half of it seems to be hard lump coal of high heating value".


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At Karkar, in the mountains near Pul-i-Khumri, are coal reserves totalling 4,000,000 tons, while at least 40,000 tons remain at Ishpushta, which gives Kabul its present coal supply. About 63 miles northeast of Herat are other reserves of hard lump coal totalling at least another 1,000,000 tons.

Mr. Owings estimated that at the present rate of coal extraction in Afghanistan—about 15,000 tons a year—proved reserves of 20,000,000 tons would last 1333 years, or well after the age of nuclear energy may have made coal less important.

On the same trip, the mining engineers looked over iron ore deposits at Haji-Alam, about 25 miles east of Kajaki Dam (Kandahar Province). The iron ore here, in hematite form, assays an average of 64 per cent iron content. Mr. Owings says, "This is an average much higher than the average of ore in the famous Mesabi iron range of Minnesota, which has afforded most of the ore for the American steel industry."

Afghanistan, according to these engineers, also has sizable quantities of chrome and sulphur. There is a deposit of more than a million tons of high grade sulphur 35 miles west of Mazar-i-Sharif, for which, in Mr. Owing's opinion, there should be an excellent market in India and Pakistan.

The output of minerals at present, due to lack of necessary implements and transport facilities, is very slight. Some coal of jurassic type is obtained from Ishpushta, 180 miles north of Kabul, and is transported to the capital by means of trucks, and is used locally. Another coal-mine which is being worked, lies at Karkar, ten miles from Baghlan. Coal extracted from this mine is consumed by the Baghlan Sugar Mills, and a part is utilized by the Textile Factory at Puli-Khumri. The seam of


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this coal is from two to eight metres in thickness and extends to a length of some ten miles.

Afghanistan is extremely rich in water-power. It is estimated that this power, if properly utilized, could make the country independent of other sources of energy. Steps are being taken to harness and make full use of these great natural resources for the development of combined irrigation and hydro-electric projects.

Salt Mines and Lakes: More than eight salt deposits have been discovered so far, and some of these are being worked successfully now. All salt mines and salt lakes are owned and operated by the Government.

Kataghan Mine: This mine was started eight years ago. It is located 28 miles away from the Taluqan mines. Mules are used to transport salt over the four miles from the mine to the road. It now has about 20,000 of 80 pound blocks of rocksalt and has produced about 100 tons of fine salt.

The rock salt deposit is very thick. The top soil is removed so that the salt can be mined with picks.

Taluqan Mine: This mine is located between the cities of Taluqan and Khanabad. It produces 160,000 to 192,000 pounds of salt a day, or 21,000 tons a year.

Salt Lakes: About 43 miles south of Andkhoi and about 14 miles east is a lake about 8 miles long and two miles wide, which is fed by salt springs. During the month of March, April and May, when the rainfall is heaviest, the lake is covered with about 20 cms. of water. In late summer the water evaporates. Collection of salt begins in August. About 10,000 tons of salt


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a year is collected. Most of the salt from this lake goes to the Maimanah District.

On the Iranian border about 117 miles southwest of Herat, there too is a salt lake. Herat obtains most of its salt from this source.


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Afghanistan's Electric Power, Present and Planned

At present only 16,000 kw of power, including diesel, is available in Afghanistan, but plans are made for the development of hydro-electricity, some of which are already nearing completion. Here is the description of all these plans, completed and under construction :

Chak-i-Wardak Power Station : This is located on the Wardak river about 57 miles south of Kabul. This 16-year-old plant has three Siemens turbo-generators, each of 1,400 kw, and each generating 1,100 kw. The maximum generation of 3,300 kw is all for Kabul. From the dam to the power house there is a canal from two-and-a-half to three miles, which leads into a two-metre steel flume with a 25 metre drop. Round steel pole transmission line support is used, with three-wire transmission at 44,000 volts. If the water supply is sufficient, the plant operates 24 hours a day; during low water periods it operates from 6.00 p.m. to 11.00 p.m. There are no plans for its expansion.

Jabalus Seraj Power Station : This plant, located on the Salung River about 45 miles north of Kabul, has two General Electric generators of 500 and 600 kw, both installed 45 years ago when the plant was built. It also has two Siemens generators of 960 kva, one three and the other eight years old. Maximum generation is 1,900 kw, with average at 1,600 kw. Only two machines are used, since there is never sufficient water for more. Of the kw generated, 1,300 to 1,500 goes to Kabul, 200 kw goes to Jabal Seraj and Charikar, and 200 to 400 kw goes to nearby textile plant. Water from the dam, which is located one mile up-river from station, flows through a canal to enter a one-and-a-half metre flume just above the


A Typical Afghan Village.


Rope & mat-weaving in the old fashion.


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power house, with a 38 metre drop. There are no plans for expansion of this plant. However, when the Sarobi plant (see below) is completed, power from the Jabal Seraj plant will be used for textile and cement plants, and the 220 volt transmission will be left intact to handle Kabul in an emergency.

Sarobi Hydro-Electric Plant: This is situated on the Kabul river, approximately 45 miles east of Kabul and about 55 miles southeast of Gulbahar. Construction began in 1951, and it was completed by the middle of 1957. The dam is 80 feet high, with a 3,700 metre long tunnel leading to a four-and-a-half metre steel-lined flume, with a drop of 170 feet.

This plant provides 11,000 kw for Kabul and another 11,000 kw for Gul Bahar Textile Mills. Original cost of the Sarobi installations was 500,000,000 Afghanis.

Future plans for Sarobi envisage the construction of a dam six miles upstream from Dam No. 1, by means of which more water and better control will be obtained, generating 60,000 kw and increasing the capacities of the three power plants to 44,000 kw each, making a total of 190,000 kw. This, however, will take years to complete. With the initial phase completed, Kabul now gets 11,000 kw from Sarobi and 3,300 kw from Chak-i-Wardak, or a maximum of 14,300 kw.

There is also a plan to build a dam on the Panjsher river, near Gul Bahar. This will give an addition of 13,000 kw.

Kandahar Electric Plant: The present capacity for Kandahar is only 250 kw and operates 4 hours a day. The Woolen Mills also generate 275 kw and shares this power for electric lighting in the city. It is planned that a power plant at the Arghandab Dam, 25 miles north of Kandahar will supply some 6,500 kw of electricity.


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The Kajaki Dam: This dam is constructed on the Helmund about 100 miles north-west of Kandahar. It has a power capacity of 120,000 kw. It is planned to utilise this power in the industrial development of the Helmund Valley.

Girishk: There are plans for two 1,500 kw generators and possibly a third on the diversion dam on the Boghra Canal near Girishk.

Herat: A 100 kw hydro-electric plant is located on the edge of the city. The local electric company uses alternately two diesels of 625 kw capacity each. Future plans include a dam 80 miles east of Herat to irrigate 50,000 acres of land and to produce 20,000 kw of electricity.

Maimanah: At present 36 kw is generated by diesel engines for lighting only. Future plan provide for a 700 kw hydro-electric plant, 15 miles north of Maimanah.

Mazar-i-Sharif: The Electric Company has a 36 kw hydro-electric plant for lights only. The company has additional capacity of 320 kw, which will operate in the near future.

Kunduz: Present power is provided by the Cotton Company mainly for its own use. Future plans include a hydro-electric plant on the Khanabad river near Khanabad with a capacity of 500 kw for the cotton company, and 200 kw for lighting the city of Kunduz. There is also a plan for 4,500 kw Kowajaghan hydro-electric plant for the use of the Cotton Company.

Taluqan: There is a small hydro-electric plant for lighting only. Other power is derived mainly for the use of the Cotton Company.


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Puli-Khumri: A hydel plant on the Kunduz River produces an average of 2,000 kw for the Textile Company, besides 80 to 120 kw for Karakar coal mines, about 10 miles from the city. Further plans contemplate installation of two more generators of 2,000 kw each. Six additional power stations of equal size are projected from Baghlan to Puli-Khumri.


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Handicrafts & Manufactures

Industrially, Afghanistan is still under-developed, though the country is rich in minerals and possesses immense productive potentialities. There are at present four textile mills—two woollen (located at Kandahar and Kabul), and two cotton, one at Puli-Khumri and the other at Jabalus-Seraj. There is also a sugar mill at Baghlan which supplies nearly a one-third of the annual requirements of sugar of the country. Besides these, a new textile mill is being established at Gul Bahar and a sugar mill at Jalalabad.

The Cotton Industry: Perhaps the most important industrial development in Afghanistan is the Cotton Company, which has its headquarters at Kunduz. This Company started ginning cotton in 1935. It has now 13 plants with 37 gins. There are plans for constructing more gins in different parts of the country, including Herat and Kandahar, to a total of 48.

The Cotton Company supplies cotton seeds and lends money to the farmers to make it possible for them to grow cotton. In turn, it buys cotton raised by the farmers. In 1954 it purchased 32,353 metric tons, which grew on 85,500 acres of land. In 1955, 169,000 acres were planted and the estimated yield was 47,270 metric tons. The Company sent 320,000 pounds of seeds to the Helmund Valley and expects a yield of 2,000 metric tons from that quarter also.

The Company not only buys, gins, and bales cotton it also manufactures by-products, including cottonseed oil, ceramics, and in some parts of Afghanistan it bales wool.

As part of its plans for the expanion of the cotton industry, the Company distributes chemical sertilisers. It operates a 175-acre experimental farm at Kunduz, where the Ministry of Agriculture also has a 500-acre experimental farm. A mulberry


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farm has been started for experimentation with the Japanese mulberry tree. The Company plans to improve and expand the silk industry also.

The Company has District Representatives located in the areas of its operation. Cotton is delivered by the farmers to these representatives; the Company trucks it to the plant. The importance of grading is emphasized, and the Company conducts courses in grading at its plant in Kunduz. At present it purchases cotton from the farmers in four grades. The statistical department of the Company reports that cotton ranks first in crop value per acre to the farmer, with sugar beet, wheat, and rice following in order. The Company employs 632 technicians regularly and 473 during busy season. It is noteworthy that land in the Kunduz area which in 1930 could be purchased at one Afghani per acre, now sells for 10,000 to 12,000 Afghanis per jereeb (nearly half acre) for farm land, while building sites sell for as much as 30,000 to 40,000 Afghanis per acre. Previously there was a saying about Kunduz, which had malarial climate: "Go to Kunduz if you seek death", now they say, "Go to Kunduz if you want gold".

Oil Factory and Soap Factory: Oil extracted from cotton seed is a by-product of the cotton industry. This is now used to make soap. The records show that in 1953, production was one million pounds of soap. In cotton growing areas many people press oil and make their own soap. One independent company in 1954 produced 350,000 cakes. It is assumed that the soap production of the cotton industry is but a small percentage of the total soap made and used in Afghanistan.

New oil and soap factories are being built, and new equipment is being purchased to replace the old ones now in use. The


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new oil factory will have a capacity of extracting and processing
30 tons of raw oil and 24 tons of refined oil per day. It is
estimated that 45,000 tons of raw cotton will yield 4,800 tons of
oil, of which about 3,600 tons will be for food oil. The new soap
factory will produce both yellow and fine toilet soap.

Ceramics Plant : A ceramic plant was started in 1940. It
was enlarged in 1944. It has now four kilns, pebble mills, crush-
ers, mixers, and potter-wheels. It produces, dishes, tiles (wall
and floor) and plumbing equipment. At present the principal
work is in tile production. The quality of the tile is said to be
the best in Afghanistan.

Clay and talc required for ceramics are obtained from
Ishkamish, south-east of Faizabad, and from an area south of
Kunduz. The Cotton Company has contracted with Japanese
technicians to assist in developing this industry.

The Textile Industry : The textile factories already in
operation, and those in process of construction are as follow :

Jabolus-Seradj : The factory was constructed during the
period 1934-1938, and contains 18,00 spindles, 80 handlooms
and 56 power-looms. This plant uses 300,000 bales of cotton per
year and has a capacity of 1,000,000 metres from its power-
looms, and 350,000 metres of special weave textiles from its hand-
looms. All power-looms are used for production of plain white
military cloth. Power is obtained from the local hydro-electric
plant, and also from a small diesel engine. There is a serious
lack of power during the winter months. The plant operates six
days a week on two 10½ hour shifts each. It is planned that
workers for other textile factories will be trained here.

Puli-Khumri Plant : This factory is 14 years old. It has
15,000 old spindles, and 15,000 spindles which are four years old


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and 550 power looms. The plant has now a capacity of 16,000,000 metres of all white textiles. New equipment has been ordered, consisting of 15,000 spindles and 304 power looms. It is estimated that the new equipment will increase the total capacity of the factory to 26,000,000 metres a year.

The Company plans to send waste cotton to Gul Bahar for spinning, and to send extra white cloth to Gul Bahar for dyeing and printing. The company employs 2,400 workmen in the factory; 231 in the office, 67 in maintenance and seven German and Austrian instructors. The company owns its workers' houses, in which they live rent-free. It supplies them with clothing, meals and hospitalization.

Gul Bahar Textile Mill: The construction of this factory was begun in 1954. It is expected to be completed by the end of 1959. It is said to be one of the most modern plants in the world. All equipment is German-made and is of the latest design. It includes 47,000 spindles, 1,600 looms, besides 225 looms for white weaving. The factory includes a dye-house, printing plant, finishing plant and cotton storage space. The entire plant occupies 100,000 sq. metres of floor space. Its estimated capacity is 55,000,000 metres of cloth a year.

Kabul: A new plant has been constructed at Jangalak, near Kabul, by the Textile Co., which is intended primarily for its own use, but is expected to develop into a commercial enterprise for the Kabul area. This plant contains a Machine Shop, a Power House, a Furniture Factory, Metal & Wood-working School, Warehouse, Auto-repair Shops and a Hall.

All the buildings are of re-inforced concrete construction. It is anticipated that all the Company's vehicles and machinery will be repaired here, and all its furniture and wooden


71

equipment fabricated in the factory. Machinists and wood workers will be trained at the school, which has excellent equipment.

Herat: An independent industrial institute was established at Herat in May, 1955, now employing from 20 to 30 persons. The Institute has additional machinery on order, and with its arrival expects to increase the number of its employees by another 100 persons. The company buys cotton yarn from Puli-Khumri. It weaves socks and stockings at the rate of 100 pairs a day. It also makes T-shirts, cotton sweaters, vests, underwear and similar articles.

Prison Textile Plant at Herat: The textile plant in the prison has eight handlooms, and produces from 10,000 to 20,000 metres of cloth a year. Besides, it weaves about 20,000 pairs of socks annually. The plant spins its own yarn, and makes dyes for its own use.

The cotton and silk industries in the Herat area have about 100 silk looms, and 1,000 cotton looms. The silk looms are used commercially for the weaving of turban cloth, of which 6,400 pounds are produced each year. Besides, silk yarn to the amount of 6,400 pounds is exported annually.

Virtually all homes in northern districts raise, spin and weave their own cloth. Hand-gins are generally used. The "Kurk" cloth industry in Herat has about 800 looms, on which are woven blankets and woollen cloth of a very fine quality made from goats' and camels' down.

Woollen Industry: There are two woollen mills, one at Kabul and the other at Kandahar. The equipment in the Kabul factory consists of 30 electric looms and 50 handlooms. The factory uses about 600 tons of wool annually, and has capacity of producing 150,000 metres of 52-inch wide fabric.


Kabul Cafe.


Maiwand Street, Kabul.


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Kandahar: This factory has been operating since 1933. It has 2,160 spindles and 36 power looms. Its maximum capacity is 70,000 metres of blanket of 1.33 metres width and 35,000 metres of tweed ranging in width from 1.4 to 1.60 metres.

In addition to the two plants described above, there are numerous other sources of production. The Rug Factory in Herat produces about 500 metres of rugs every two years.

Karakul Industry: The Karakul producing territory extends from Aqchah in the north to Herat. In 1945, the production was 2,400,000 pieces; at present it is about 2,000,000 pieces a year. It is estimated that independent producers and distributors handle about 1,300,000, while the Karakul Company handles about 700,000 skins. The Karakul Company has ten plants. The Mazari Sharif plant alone handles 400,000 skins, while the Andkhoi plant handles from 100,000 to 150,000 skins a year.

Silk Industry: There are great numbers of mulberry trees in Afghanistan. The silk industry was started in the Baghlan area with the assistance of a Japanese consultant. It is estimated that the farmers in this one area alone raise about 42 tons of cocoons, and use about 33 tons in home spinning, and sell about 10 tons annually to the Silk Company. The area where silk is produced extends from Jabalus-Seradj to the northern border and across to Andkhoi, then south to Herat.

Sugar Industry: There are two great sugar factories, one at Industrial Baghlan and the other at Jalalabad. Machinery for the first was purchased in 1938 from Skoda, a Czechoslovakian firm and installed in 1940 at a cost of 1,000,000 dollars. It has a maximum capacity of 60,000 tons of sugar beets. In 1954 it processed 41,000 tons of beet and it is estimated that


73
in 1959 it will be in a position to handle 60,000 tons. Sugar extracted is calculated at 13 per cent of the total tonnage. In 1954 the plant produced 5,300 metric tons of refined sugar, and 7,500 metric tons are planned for 1960. A second factory is also planned. When this starts working it is expected that Afghanistan will become self-sufficient in producing sugar for its own needs.
The factory now operates 60 days in November and December, after a six to seven-month growing season. Sugar beets provide a good growing crop for farmers. The farmer now raises about six tons per acre, but this can be doubled with the use of commercial fertilisers. Beet production in this area increased 42 per cent from 1952 to 1953. All waste from the plant is returned to the farmers for cattle feed free of cost. The usual farm in this area is about six acres in size, on which crops of sugar beets, cotton, wheat and fruits, including grapes, are usually grown. It is estimated that the average sale value of all the crops from such farms is about 15,000 Afghanis a year each farm.
The Sugar Factory at Industrial Baghlan is owned by individual stock-holders, the Afghan National Bank (Bank-i-Millie) owning 85 per cent of the stocks. The factory employs 60 to 65 office workers, 60 permanent labourers, and up to 1,000 temporary labourers during the season. The Sugar Company has its own farm with 500 cattle, 600 to 700 sheep, 100 horses, 20 camels and 20 mules.
Jalalabad Sugar Factory: This plant has a capacity of 350 to 500 tons of sugar annually.
Petroleum: There are a good many indications that considerable quantities of crude oil exist north of the Hindu-Kush,


74
from Taluqan to Maimanah. A Swedish Exploration Company has a contract for drilling near Saripul. Some also think that oil exists south of the Hindukush range too, especially in the south-west desert regions.
Cement Factory: A cement factory was completed at Jabalus-Seraj only recently. It has a 100 ton capacity a day, or 350,000 tons annually. Limestone, clay and iron ore are adjacent to the factory site. Only coal is to be trucked from Karkar or Ishpushta mines. The factory supplies cement to the local markets.
Leather and Shoe Factory at Kabul: This plant has a capacity to handle 600 hides a day. (The Leather Company imports colours and uses its own tanning mix). The capacity of the Shoe Factory is 500 pairs of military boots a day, plus 100 pairs of shoes for civilian use.
The Slaughter House and Refrigeration Plant: In 1954 the slaughter house handled 73,000 animals. All meat produced is for local consumption in or near Kabul. Sheep casings are exported and the fat of animals (fat from tails) is used for house-hold cooking.
The Marble Factory at Kabul: The Factory has Italian made equipment, and uses 15 different kinds of marble, all from Afghanistan. Lack of transport facilities prevents extensive use of marble found in distant districts. The factory produces 8,000 sq. meters of finished products of marble a year. It also polishes and manufactures lapis-lazuli products.
Cottage Industries: Of the cottage industries, the first place is occupied by carpet-weaving. For hundreds of years Afghanistan has been famous for its fine carpets, which are highly valued in foreign markets for their beauty, durability,


75

and brilliancy of colours. The chief carpet-manufacturing districts are all situated in the north, from Herat to Kataghan. Mazari-Sharif, Daulatabad, Aqchah, Qarqeen, Andkhoi, Maimanah, Shibarghan, Shore-Tuppeh, Gulran and Herat are the chief centres of this industry, but the carpets manufactured at Daulatabad are of the best quality and are famous throughout the world. In addition to carpets and rugs, prayer rugs (called Jai-Namaz), saddle bags, pillow-cases, etc., are also made in carpet patterns.

These rich and far-famed carpets and rugs are the work of women's hands, women who have spent their lives, from earliest childhood, to motherhood and grandmotherhood, at the loom. A few stakes driven into the earthen floor, cross-beams, warp-rollers with the ground fabric of the carpet stretched on them, a knife, a comb, and a pair of scissors—these are the ancient and traditional apparatus upon which from time immemorial the girls of northern Afghanistan prepare for their homes the principal furnishings, the carpets of wool and silk, that decorate the walls and doorways, the rugs of the floor, the saddle-bags and tent-flaps.

The art of carpet weaving has survived to our own day, and it is still carried on by women, who still weave the designs that have been handed down from generation to generation. The loom used for the big carpets is the same used formerly, but the most perfect instruments of the execution of the work are the unerring eyes and the dexterous fingers that move to a swift rhythm with greater precision than those of a harpist.

The delicate fingers now rest on the threads of the ground-work, pick up a couple raised by a heddle, tie them in a complicated knot, the ends of which are pulled through to the right


76

side of the carpet. A flash of the knife and the ends are cut short. Knots after knots thus slip from under the nimble fingers till the ground work begins to glow with different colours—raspberry and wine reds, pinks and browns, relieved with white and black. The heddle raises some of the threads of the groundwork, and leaves the others, while both hands draw the strong elastic thread of the weft—the margin of the row.

Then the hands pick up the heavy comb of hard wood and, with a few smart blows along the last row of the weft, drive the knots close up to the one before. Twenty rows, up to eight thousand knots, are made in a day, but in a square metre of any carpet there are eight hundred thousand knots to be tied and thickened.

The close rows of varicoloured knots of uneven worsted steadily advance over the monotone of the background, and the pattern glimmers vaguely through the broken colours. But now the two small hands wield the great scissors, and the razor-keen blades crop the ragged ends of the knots to exactly three millimetres above the foundation. The harmonious design flashes into sudden brilliance of silken woollen pile.

When the busy fingers need a rest, the carpet-weavers turn to a cup of tea, which is quaffed from a small gay faience.

The wool of these carpets is dyed with the unfading colours obtained from the madder plant, cochineal, Sihchoba, etc., which last for centuries. It is interesting to note that old carpets fetch higher prices than the new ones, for the brilliancy of their colours, which is enhanced by constant use and rubbing.

Next to carpets, the making of sheepskin coats and vests is a flourishing industry. Usually the edges and sleeves of the coats are embroidered with yellow silk. Coats of other furs,


77
such as Karakul skins, wolf hides and the pelts of fox, and lynx, etc., are also very common in use, and a large number of these are exported.
These cottage industries of cotton and wool fabrics are widespread. In view of the cold climate and the existence of vast pasturage the inhabitants from a very early time took to the rearing of sheep which supply them with milk, butter, various other dairy products, as well as wool and skins. A considerable quantity of this wool is consumed locally by the handlooms and textile mills, while the remainder is exported.


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Improvement of Sericulture In Afghanistan*
Sericulture has been quite popular with Afghan farmers for many centuries despite the fact that only poor silkworm strains and primitive methods were used. In recent years some sericulture technicians from abroad were sent to the country by F. A. O. of the United Nations under the technical Assistance Programme. Beginning in 1953, modern techniques and good mulberry and worm varieties were introduced to this country where the climate and rural economical conditions proved favourable to this small industry.
The first place chosen for carrying on such work was the Province of Kataghan, because of these reasons :
(1) Communications are comparatively better than the other silk centres,
(2) Local political and economical leaders are mostly warm hearted, farsighted, and particularly interested in developing the silk industry,
(3) Modern agricultural production mills and factories are centralised in that area and other scientific improvements in agriculture have already been initiated,
(4) Necessary supply of houses, motor vehicles, electricity, materials, etc., can be easily provided.
A summary of four years' work with its preliminary results is as follows :
(1) Mulberry Plantations :
(a) Made by the Silk Co-operative Co.—A model mulberry orchard was organized in March 1953 where 5,000 trees of best varieties were imported
*Extract from a report submitted by Professor Kintson Keh, the Silk Specialist, to the Ministry of Agriculture.


79

from Japan and planted according to most up-to-date methods. The trees of this orchard have served as mother-trees from which thousands and thousands of scions were picked by the farmers who found the value of grafting them to their own seedlings. The company has augmented year after year the production of seedlings from a few thousands at start to hundreds of thousands.

(b) Made by the farmers.—Knowing the superiority of the improved trees in precocity and productivity, the Katghan farmers after their two-year observation, began to take action in sowing acres and acres of land with mulberry seeds in order to obtain large quantities of seedlings. More than two million mulberry seedlings can be seen on their land and more than fifty thousand grafts are reportedly grown now. As a matter of fact, the production of such grafts cannot be limited.

(2) Selected silkworm eggs: A most important step to be taken for assuring farmers of cocoon harvests is to supply them with good and strong silkworm eggs. The company assisted by F. A. O. technicians has formed a breeding station through obtaining modern equipment, and training personnel for producing more and more disease-free and high-yield eggs to be distributed yearly and seasonly to the farmers. An approximate statistical table of egg production is as follows:

Year 1953........... 6,000 grs.
1954........... 9,000 ,,
1955........... 36,000 ,,

1956........... 60,000 grs.
1957........... 95,000 ,,


His Majesty the King inspects products of the Fine Arts School on Independence Day Celebrations.


[BLANK PAGE]


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declared that he could hardly believe that, in such a short time, Afghanistan had made such improvement in mulberry leaves and in cocoons and he was of the opinion that a bright future lies ahead for this industry in Afghanistan. A meeting was held between him and Dr. Yussef, Minister of Mines and Industries, in connection with setting up a mechanical, modern filature in Baghlan. A preliminary agreement has been reached and co-operation between the two countries in silk processing may be expected in the future.


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Afghanistan's Foreign Trade

Although Afghanistan was once an important corridor for commercial traffic between the Occident and the Orient, little trade passes through the country today. As a result, Afghanistan is unable to supplement its export income through bank commissions, transportation charges, or middlemen profits. In addition, imports are subject to long delays, expensive transportation costs, and handling charges. Foreign trade, never-the-less plays an important part in the economic life of Afghanistan, and has been a major factor in the country's economic development.

Afghanistan at present has no outlet to the sea; her foreign trade, therefore, passes through the neighbouring countries.

The tension between Afghanistan and Pakistan especially during 1953 to 1957 greatly affected the volume of Afghan trade through Pakistan. Due to this, a large amount of Afghan trade passed through the Soviet Union.

Afghanistan is almost completely a supplier of raw materials and a market for consumer and developmental goods. Its most important export commodities are hides and skins, principally Karakuli skins; the figure reaching 2,000,000 skins a year. Next to skins and fur, the chief exports of the country are: fruits (fresh, dried and preserved), and nuts (almonds, pistachios, pignolia, etc.). Of late, cotton has occupied a prominent part in Afghan exports. It has been reported that annual exports during 1954 of Karakuli skins averaged approximately one and a half million pieces; ginned cotton about 9,000 tons; raw wool about 5,500 tons, and fruits and nuts about 80,000 tons. It has been estimated that currently from one-half to three-quarters of all raw wool and cotton exports go to the Soviet Union; almost all of the fruits, nuts and vegetables, to India


83

and Pakistan, and the largest part of Karakuli exports to the United States. Before World War II, the United Kingdom had been the chief market for Afghan Karakuli.

Afghanistan's most important needs consist of textile machinery and motor vehicles, building materials, sugar, tea, petroleum products, and boots and shoes, with cotton piece goods representing the largest single item—about 40% of her imports.

Before World War II, India, the United Kingdom, USSR, and the United States were, in that order, Afghanistan's leading markets; while India, the United Kingdom, the USSR, Japan, Germany, and the United States were its principal suppliers. The direction of Afghanistan's trade changed with the war, and the United States became Afghanistan's most important market, followed by India, the USSR, and the United Kingdom. Its leading suppliers remained the same, except that the share of the United States became more important as a result of the cessation of Afghan imports from Japan and Germany. It has been estimated that in 1954-55 the USSR assumed first place in Afghanistan's trade, both as a market and as supplier. Chief imports from this direction are: petroleum products, cement, cotton piecegoods, sugar and trucks.

Afghanistan's Foreign Trade, in the years 1951-1954. In million of dollars. (Figures for Afghan trade with USSR, and the Soviet-bloc countries are not available):

Year Exports Imports Favourable Balance of Trade
1951 42 21 21
1952 53 23 12
1953 39 25 14
1954 39 25 14


84

EXPORTS

Comodity &
Country
Quantity
Value
in thousands of dollars

Raw cotton (in thousands
of pounds)
15,448
5,878

Japan ...
9,506
3,751

Germany ...
5,371
1,926

Hongkong ...
571
201

Raw wool

U. S. A. ...
2,709
2,508

India ...
159
38

Hides & Skins (principally
Karakul), (in thousands)
14,076

U. S. A.
1,215
11,124

United Kingdom
...
1,000

Germany
...
1,444

India
635
499

Canada
...
9

Fruits, nuts and vegetable
(in thousands of pounds)
11,203

India
...
8,058 (1)

Pakistan
...
2,867 (2)

United States
582
278

Asafoetida (in 100 Lbs.)

India
592
225

Seeds, all kinds
...
208

India
122
198

Pakistan
36
10

Wood & timber
Pakistan (January-November only)
983

Other drugs
55

(1) Includes dried fruit valued at 4,539,000 dollars.
(2) January-November only.


86

MAJOR PROVINCES

KABUL : This province occupies the central plateau, and is for the most part mountainous, lying between 5,000 to 6,000 feet above sea-level. Its chief districts are : Koh Daman or Samt-i-Shamali, Lohgar, Verdak, Ghorband,* Hazarajat, Bamian, Kabul Proper, Panjsher, Tagab and Nijrab.

Of these, Koh Daman (Capisia) is the most beautiful of all. It lies north of Kabul, from which it is separated by a low creeping ridge not far from the town. At the upper extremity of this valley rise the snowy peaks of the Hindukush, while those of the Paghaman range overlook it from the west. To the east it is bounded by a lower range crossing the bottom of the valley. So enclosed, Koh Daman has a length of 40 miles and a medium breadth of 10 miles. The western side of the valley is much higher than the eastern, along which the drainage of the opposite mountain flows. The sides of the Paghman mountains are split by numerous ravines, down which come tumbling rills of the clearest and purest water. The slopes of these rugged channels are thickly planted with mulberry, and every suitable spot is clad with fruit trees or vines.

Koh Daman (the Skirts of Hills) is indeed one of the gardens of Afghanistan. There, one may wander in spring amidst the curves and folds of an undulating land, neither hill nor plain, with the scent of the flowering-willow and sinjit in the air, and the darkness of a spring growth of flower and grass bordering narrow runlets and irrigation channels, a blue sky above, and a varied carpet beneath, while the song of the merry labourer rises from the field and orchards. Piled up on steep and unbroken banks

*Recently a new Province named "Parwan" has been created which includes the districts of Charikar, Jabalu-Seradj and Ghorband.


87

from the very foot of the mountains are scattered white-walled
villages, and it is there that one may find later in the same year
some of the fruits for which the country has acquired a world-
wide fame.

In November a gentle haze rests in soft indecision upon the
dust-coloured landscape—heavier and bluer over the low-lying
fields, from which all vegetation has been lifted. It is a different
world now from the world of the spring—all utterly sad and dust-
laden, but it is then that the strings of fruit-laden donkeys and
trucks make their way towards the city, where the shops are seen
piled up from floor to the roof with these delicious fruits.

Besides fruits, Koh Daman yields grains, cotton, tobacco
and various kinds of vegetables. It is thickly studded with cast-
les and decorated with gardens and vineyards. This delightful
district, full of clustering hamlets, has an invigorating climate.
Few districts possess a town that can rival Istaliff perched at the
foot of the Paghman range. A small river runs through this
beautiful hamlet, and on either side of it are gardens, green, gay,
and surpassingly lovely, where

"A million and million flowers
The fields and gardens adorn,
And the purple iris scents the air,
As each fresh bloom is born".

Its water, even in the months of June and July, is so cold
that there is no need of icing it. The Takhat (Throne), where
people flock in hundreds on every holiday, is one of the finest
beauty spots of Koh Daman. Its magnificent spreading poplars
(Panja Chinar) as they are called here, perhaps survivors of
Mughal days, throw broad shade on all sides, where a few hours'


Atan, a national dance.


A young Afghan fond of becoming a soldier.


88
rest makes the jaded visitor from the parched plains of the neighbouring countries forget his fatigue.
Opposite to the Takht stands the town of Istaliff ; houses piled upon one another, resembling a beehive from afar, and stretching to the shoulder of the mountain that overlooks it. A stream pursues its way in the bottom of the valley below Takht, which chafed and torn by its rocky bed, produces a sweet, melodious sound that lulls the weary traveller to sleep even in the day time.
Some of the best grapes in the world come from Koh Daman. It also furnishes much of the annual crop of excellent raisins that Afghanistan produces—raisins which are dried in the perforated rooms that one sees in most of the villages along the road. Some of the villages have a unique method of preserving grapes fresh for use in winter. Choice bunches are encased in hollow mud cells, called Kangina, where in the high dry air, they keep without much loss of moisture and but little spoiling.
GUL BAHAR : (Spring Blossom). In the north-eastern corner of Koh Daman is another lovely spot, called Gul Bahar, which lies on the banks of the Panjsher river, where
"The wine-like air calls visitors forth ;
Some wander far, some near ;
To shoot, to fish, make pictures or
To picnic by some mere".
Looking upward from Gul Bahar towards the lofty Hindukush, a snaky line of intermingled white and green water is seen leaping and twisting among the huge stones that pave its narrow bed. So beautifully transparent is the water that the stones at the bottom can be easily counted. Another stream of cold water, breaking through the Hindukush, comes down with


89

headlong fury, tumbling and foaming to join the Panjsher at Gul
Bahar. This is called the Shuttul, which affects a junction with
the Panjsher a little below the iron bridge. This site has been
selected for the construction of a textile mill. Beyond Gul Bahar
lies the beautiful valley of Kohistan.

The mountains at the head of Koh Daman throw out in-
numerable streams, foremost among which are: the Ghorband,
the Parwan, the Shuttul, and the Panjsher. The Parwan flows
into the Ghorband, about four miles below the hills. The Ghor-
band, thus augmented, joins the Panjsher at Ali Burj, on the north-
east of the historic plain of Bagram. A few miles east of this junc-
tion the Barikab falls in from the south, and the drainage of the
valley, thus collected into one channel, flows through an opening
in the eastern hills and joins the Kabul at Sarobi, where a new
electric plant is being installed to utilize the waters of these
streams.

Koh Doman plays an important rôle in the ancient history
of the country. It was a great seat of culture in the pre-Islamic
days, and had some flourishing towns (such as Alexandria ad
Caucasum, Houpian, Cartana, Cadrusi, and Capisia). The
whole plain, especially that of the Bagram (old Capisene) is litter-
ed with the ruins of these ancient seats of culture.

Another of the better known of the many populous valleys
in this direction is called Panjsher (Five Lions), which lies beyond
the pale of Koh Daman and Kohistan. A zigzag motor road
now leads from Gul Bahar to this happy valley. The soil of
Panjsher is not very rich and is divided into small patches, but
its climate is very salubrious, and its water is said to help diges-
tion. Orchards and mulberry groves constitute most of the
wealth of the people inhabiting this valley. A caravan road


90

from Kabul to Kataghan passes through this valley enroute to
the famous Khawak Pass, at a height of 11,640 feet above sea-
level.

Among other places of interest around Kabul, as regards
climate and natural beauty, mention may be made of Paghman,
which is picturesquely set up in the lap of the range of the same
name, some 16 miles west of the capital. It is a small,
picturesque town, and the whole locality is exceptionally clean,
healthy, calm and serene.

The climate of the Province of Kabul, on the whole, is
wholesome and bracing. The air, owing to altitude, is rare and
at first, a new-comer experiences some little difficulty in breath-
ing when walking uphill. There is usually little rainfall during
the summer. Thunderstorms, with heavy downfalls of rain are
frequent during early spring. In these storms, the flashes of
lightning are almost continuous and the peals of thunder are
deafening and without cessation, but the electricity is often ex-
pended on the heights of the mountains, and there are few cases
on record of a house being struck.

In winter, heavy falls of snow are common, and when the
wind causes it to drift, the small houses and hamlets are some-
times half covered with snow. Electric as well as telephone
service is interrupted and motoring becomes impossible except
for cars equipped with chains. The temperature sometimes,
especially during cold waves, falls to 30° below zero C. At
Hazarajat the winter is even more severe, and traditions tell of
disastrous snowstorms. Avalanches are also very common
causing great damage to life and property.

But even during winter the days are mostly bright and
cheerful, and the sky clears soon after the fall of snow. The sun


91

shines brilliantly causing the snow to thaw. In the evening it freezes again, and the roads are like polished glass, very slippery, and men, horses and camels are apt to fall and be injured. This is the time for village children to skip over the sheets of ice, using nailed shoes instead of skates.
The sun shining on the snow causes a good deal of snow-blindness, if care is not taken, but the most trying time is when the sky is overcast, and a great wind rises, which nothing can keep out of the houses. Then at sun-down the temperature falls below zero and continues to fall as the night advances, and even with a huge fire burning in the middle of the room, one is warm only on the side nearest the fire while the other side continues to be chilled with the continuous draught which comes in through every crevice as the wind surges against the house in heavy waves. Those outside, who bear the brunt of this wind, suffer considerably, and often lose feet, hands or nose with frost-bite. At this time wolves, too, driven by hunger, come down from their natural fastnesses to seek food, and are sometimes so desperate that they attack and kill men, when they find them helpless with cold or fatigue, and carry off children, sheep and goats, when and where they can get them.
The clear rare air makes distances very deceptive to the eyes, and mountains at a considerable distance appear very close. Days of bright, clear sunshine are very tiring owing to the crisp biting air, when the thermometer runs down to double figures below zero, and the scintillations of light reflected from the myriad particles of frozen moisture sparkle like drops from a lamp-lit fountain, which greatly affect the naked eye.
Earthquakes are common in the Kabul district, but thanks to the mode of construction of the houses, which are built in


192

such a way as to be earthquake proof, the damage caused is often negligible.

KANDAHAR: Kandahar is one of the richest provinces of Afghanistan, and is extremely fertile and well-watered. It can boast of rich meadows, clothed with green turf, of gardens and orchards full of fruit trees and fields of corn, watered by numerous running streams. Its climate is cheering in winter, but it is considered most pleasant in spring. During summer it is both hot and dry. Its chief exports are fruits, fresh as well as dried, and large quantities of wool. The wool of Kandahar is of a very good quality, and in the last few years it has found an excellent market abroad. A factory for the manufacture of woollen cloth was set up here before the outbreak of the last World War, and since then it has made considerable progress. Its produce, both good and cheap, is now supplying the needs of the people, replacing imports from abroad of woollen goods.

However, Kandahar's real fame lies in its delicious fruits. Foremost among these are grapes. Then come pomegranates and 'shakar-para' (a kind of dried apricot, so sweet, that it is named 'shakar-para', meaning a piece of sugar), which is dried and exported in large quantities. Kandahar has a fine quality of raisin, of light yellow colour, up to two centimetres long, known by the name of 'Abjosh' (water-boiled).

The pomegranates grown in this district are of exceptionally high quality and in size reach from 17 to 18 cms. in diameter each. Large groves of pomegranate trees are located along the Arghandab river. The pulp of the fruit is usually dark-red less frequently white.

The construction of the Kajaki and Arghandab Dams and the Boghra Canal in collaboration with the U.S. Operations


93
Mission are likely to play an important rôle in the agricultural
development of this province. These developments will pro-
gressively result in an increase in the productive capacity of
Afghan agriculture of over 700,000 acres of improved and new
land. At the same time, the project will make a major con-
tribution to the solution of the problem of the settlement of
Afghanistan's tribal nomads.

HERAT: The province of Herat occupies the north-
western corner of Afghanistan. A traveller is struck with the
richness and fertility of its soil. It is well-watered by innumer-
able streams, the Hari-Rud being the most important of them.
Well-fortified and populous villages are scattered throughout
this valley. Around these are beautiful gardens, orchards and
vineyards.

The north-eastern parts of this province are mostly moun-
tainous, while the western and southern portions are generally
sandy and level. The Parapomisus, running roughly parallel to
the Hari-Rud, cuts off the valley of the Hari from that of
Badghisat. The north-western corner of the province is occupied
by innumerable saline deserts, known by the common name of
Namaksar (salt-deserts). These deserts are regarded by some as
the beds of dried-up seas.

The main valley of Hert, watered by the Hari-Rud, is
extremely fertile and well-watered, and is one of the richest
and best irrigated districts of the country, wherein are situated
the important towns of Herat, Obeh, Ghorian (Poshinj of old)
and Kushan.

The lovely district of Badghisat, so famous in history, lies
on the northern skirts of the Paropamisus Range. It is said
that Nassr bin Ahmad, the Samanid King of Bokhara (913—942


94

A.D.) was so charmed with its beauty that he would not quit
the place even after a stay of two years. The courtiers,
home-sick as they were, approached Rodaki, the poet-laureate,
if he would do something to make the King return home.
Whereupon the poet composed a few simple but touching verses,
and when he recited them to the King, the effect was marvellous.
It is said that he immediately left on horse-back for Bokhara
without even waiting to put on his boots.

Sabzwar or Sheendand, the old historic Isfazar another
fertile district, lies to the south on the Herat-Kabul road.

The soil of Herat is varied in its quality and character.
Some districts are so fertile that grain there yields one hundred
and rice two hundred-fold.

The produce of Herat consists of fruits in great variety
and most kinds of grain. It also produces some silk, saffron,
large quantities of asafoetida, manna, tobacco, pistachio, nuts
and gums.

Herat possesses a pleasant and beautiful climate. Winters
are not extremely cold, and summers would be hot but for the
periodical wind from the west which generally lasts for 120
days.

The mineral wealth of the province is said to be great.
There are many signs of oil-bearing areas. Important oil fields
are located at a place called Tirpul, west of the city on Herat-
Meshed road. Salt is found in various parts in the shape of a
thick effervescence. The province is also rich in iron and coal.

Herat is celebrated for the beauty and durability of its
carpets. It is also noted for its woollen cloth (called Kurk) and
silken fabrics called Kanavez.


A view of Doab-i-Mekh-i-Zarin (of the Golden Peg), Shikari Pass


Lashkari Bazaar, the new city near Lashkargah, the winter capital of Sultan Masud.


96

later by poppies as scarlet as tulips; and yet more thistles. This lasts but for a very short time. When the spring rains cease, all this gaiety ceases too. The flowers wither and the stalks dry up and stiffen. Then comes the wind, and it scrapes all the dry stalks from the surface of the downs. It blows them away, and then rolls them up into huge bundles which collect in the folds and gullies of the hills—a tangled mass of dry nothingness. When the snow descends and the floods finally come again, out goes all the mass of debris, sailing after the manner of detached haystacks. None of it ever reaches the Oxus, for none of the local streams ever makes a junction with that river. So the rubbish gets piled into swamps, and this gives cover to countless pheasants, and finally becomes submerged and reed-covered.

The province of Mazar (ancient Bactria) has a glorious past. It was here that the Aryan settlers laid the foundation of what is known to be their first capital—Bakhdi, the city of lofty banners. Arts and crafts developed very early in this region and reached a high level. It was here that Zoroaster preached his simple religion, and the Zend-Avesta came into being. Later on it became the centre of the Greek colony in the East. In the palmy Buddhist days, Balkh became a great seat of religion, and was famous for its temple of Navavihara, more familiarly known as Atishkada-i-Naobahar (the fire-temple of Naobahar).

As a province Mazar-i-Sharif is ranked among the leading ones in the state. Its position is in no way less important than that of Herat or Kandahar. It contains the fertile districts of Tashquerghan, Aibak, Sangcharak, Saripul, Balkh, Daulatabad, Aqchah, and Shibarghan. It has innumerable pastures where flocks of sheep and horses are reared. It is also the home of the famous Afghan sheep, Karakuli. The chief items of exports are: the Karakuli lambskins, carpets, pistachio and almonds.


97

KATAGHAN : It occupies the north-eastern corner of the country, and is bounded on the south by the Hindukush and on the north by Badakhshan and Amu. It is well-watered on the whole and possesses some fine populous districts, foremost among these being: Baghlan, Puli-Khumri, Doshi; Dahan-i-Ghori, Khanabad, Andarab, Kunduz, Hazrat-i-Imam and Taluqan. It is the chief cotton producing centre of the country; part of which is used by the Puli-Khumri and Jabalus-Seradj Mills, while large quantities are left to be exported.

The province of Kataghan (Tukharistan of old) is also noted for its fine breed of horses and sheep. Within the last few years a large number of canals have been dug out in the province, which now play a great part in the agricultural development of the country. Similarly large areas of marshy and swampy lands have been drained and brought under cultivation. Previously Kunduz (Kohan-Dizh, that is Old Fort) was notorious for its malarial climate to the extent that people used to say: "Marg mekhwahi Kunduz bro" (meaning "If it is death that you seek, then go to Kunduz"). However, the locality has now been properly drained and cleared of reeds and marshes and has come to be one of the most fertile districts of the province. The proverb now runs: "Go to Kunduz if you are after gold" (Zar mekhwahi Kunduz bro).

On the whole the climate of this province cannot be pronounced salubrious. Winters are comparatively better, but summers are hot and tiring.

Recently the cultivation of beetroot has made considerable progress, especially in the country around Baghlan, where a big sugar-mill is installed to make use of the produce.

NANGRAHAR (SAMT-I-MASHRIQI or THE EASTERN PROVINCE): There are few spots such as Jalalabad—a green,


98

pleasant valley where the Kabul river spreads out a hundred
yards or more into a broad rapid stream and transforms sandy
tracts into oases, There are poplar,cypress, mulberry, ash, and
willow trees in Jalalabad, and their shade seem doubly deep be-
cause of the brilliance of the sun on the bare rocks and hills to
the north and south.

Jalalabad is hot in summer, but its winters are quite
pleasant. At the foot of the Speen Ghar there are some fine
hill-stations, where people flock during the hot season. Kaja,
Khogyani, and Mamakhel may be especially mentioned in this
connection.

One of the richest districts of this province is Laghman
(Lampaka of old). This fertile valley lies to the west of Jalal-
abad city along the Kabul-Peshawar road. The Kabul river,
that has all along struggled through narrow gorges, here becomes
a broad clear stream, more than 50 yards wide.

The valley of Laghman is well-watered and must have
always been populous. From the north the snow-capped peaks
of the Nuristan mountains (southern off-shoots of the Hindukush)
look down upon it, and among the forest clad valleys at the
foot of these peaks two important river systems take their rise—
the Alishang and Alingar, which, uniting, join the Kabul river
in this flat plain, where each acre of land is extremely pro-
ductive.

The second valley of note is that of Kunar, which lies to
the north of Jalalabad, and beyond which is situated the most
fascinating region of Afghanistan, known as Nuristan (the old
Kafiristan).

The Kunar valley is of exceptional interest for many
reasons. The ancient road from Kabul (or Capisia) to India


99

through the Laghman valley ran across it in Bajaur. Consequently former conquerors, such as Alexander the Great and Babar, who advanced from Kabul, and were always concerned in reducing the hill tribes about the Kunar before they entered the plains of India, knew it well.

The Kunar valley is among the most lovely of the many lovely valleys of Afghanistan. Flanked by the snow-covered mountains of Khushmund on the west, and the long level water-shed which divides it from Bajaur and Panjkora drainage on the east, it appears as one enters it from Jalalabad side, to be hemmed in and to be very narrow, But it widens out north-ward, a few miles above the entrance, where the ridges of the lofty Khushmund tail off into low altitudes of sweeping hills.

The Lower Kunar (or Kooz Kunar) in the early autumn is passing beautiful. Down the tawny plain, backed by purple hills, the river Kunar winds its way, reflecting the azure sky with pure turquoise, blinking and winking with tiny sun-shifts, and running emerald green at the edges, and sharp perpendicular columns of black break the landscape in ordered groups. There are the cypresses which still adorn, in stately rows, the archaic gardens of hamlets which once were flourishing towns. The clustering villages are thick in some parts, so thick that they jostle each other continuously. The villages are white-walled and outwardly clean. The scent of orange-blossoms is luscious and overpowering. It was through these lovely villages that Alexander the Great marched on his way to India (327 B.C.). Perhaps he crossed the Kunar watershed by the Speensuka Pass, which leads direct from Pasht to Bajaur. It was here that the bold invader met the stubborn resistance of the Aspasians or Assakenians (perhaps modern Safis) and was severely wounded.


100

Higher up the river the valley closes long before Chitral is
reached. It narrows exceedingly. Here the northern winds
rage down the funnel with bitter fury and make life burdensome.
The villages take to the hill slopes or cluster in patches on the
terraces at the feet of the hills.

To the south-west of the great gorges that come down from
the Pamirs lies the most fascinating region of Nuristan (old
name Kafiristan, that is the Land of the Unbelievers). Until
1892 a popular legend and belief peopled this region with the
descendants of Alexander's army-men whom he had left
behind. In that year, George Robertson entered the country
twice, on the latter occasion making a prolonged stay, visiting
several of the valleys and staying at the villages. He made close
study of their languages, manners and customs. His report for
the first time dispelled the idea that the inhabitants of this part
of the country had any Macedonian origin. It is also related
that when the Macedonian army was passing that way, some-
where among these hills, probably at the lower spurs of the
three-peaked Koh-i-Noor, there dwelt a people who told the
invaders that they were the descendants of the western people
who had come into those parts with their god Dionysus. Nuris-
tan has created much interest in various foreign countries,
several missions (from Germany and Denmark) having visited
it quite recently.

The valleys of Nuristan strike the traveller with their neat-
ness, their beauty and well-cultivated fields. Near the houses
are planted trees, laid out paths, and carefully conducted water-
ways, by which the antiquity of sedentary culture is felt. The
crops are sown in small patches. Every foot of land is cultiva-
ted. The fields are surrounded by fences.


101

From Parun Pass onwards lies the forest zone. Here most of the houses are built of wood, with stones only in the foundation. The population, Nuristanis as they are called, are of pure Aryan type, tall, slim, and extremely handsome. They embraced Islam towards the close of the nineteeth century during the reign of Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.

PACTIA (SAMT-I-JUNUBI or the Southern Province). It lies south of Kabul, and occupies comparatively a smaller area. This region is mostly hilly and is covered with fine cedar forests. From an agricultural point this province is not rich and is very sparsely populated, but its chief importance lies in its strategical position, for here roads radiate to Kabul, Ghazni and Bannu. The province is the home of some of the most warlike and brave Afghan tribes, who have played an important rôle in the defence of the country.

Some of the forest districts are indeed very lovely and possess a healthful climate. The hilly districts are extremely cold in winter, but summers are generally genial. Khost is the hottest part of this region.

Gardez, the chief town of the province, stands at an elevation of 7,200 feet, and is colder than Kabul. During summer it is much cooler and has genial climate.

Chief items of export are: timber, charcoal, honey and pignolia.


102
PART TWO
The People
Afghans are for the most part of original Indo-European stock, though people of other races, especially Mongolians, are not wanting. The Pashtuns, who account for 65 or 70 per cent of the total population, are of Aryan origin. Next comes the Tajiks, who, like the Pashtuns, are the descendants of the original Aryan stock, settled in the country during the days of general migration. They form from 15 to 20% of the entire population. The rest are Hazaras, Turkomans, Uzbeks, Kizilbashes, Kirghiz, Arabs and others. Despite the medley of races and tongues, the Afghans today form one nation, and are united to live and die in the defence of their motherland.
Unfortuuately, much misconception prevails about the manners and customs of the Afghans in the outside world. This is chiefly due to the fact that most of the books available are written by those who were hostile towards Afghanistan. A well-known American writer (Justice William O. Douglas) who recently had an opportunity to pay a visit to the country, and had been under the influence of these writers, says in this connection: "I had gone to Afghanistan with great misgivings. The literature I had read, the tales I had heard, made me very uneasy. I was told that it was a nation of brigands and thieves. I was told that it was not even safe to go unarmed into the bazaars; that unless one had an armed escort, he was tempting fate. This was rank libel. The Afghans are the most friendly and hospitable people I have ever met. One could go to any Afghan home and be warmly received. He would get the best food the family had to offer. The house would be his home though he were a total stranger. If there were only one room,


[BLANK PAGE]


Ancient Stone cauldron, Kabul Museum.
۷۰


The mausoleum of Abdullah Ansari at Herat Gazargah.
A specimen of Afghan art of the 15th Century.


104

after sustaining heavy casualties. No nation or race has ever
shown more dauntless courage or more indomitable energy than
the Afghans in their wars with Arabs. The Arabs attacked
Kabul and the Central Afghan plateau no less than six times,
but all their efforts were frustrated and each time they had to
fall back precipitately.

In modern times the regiments of the British army which
stormed triumphantly through Africa and Asia, suffered crushing
defeats at the hands of the Afghans. Only the Afghans defeated
the British Empire, not once, but three times and at the
Britishers' game of war. The disaster of the British troops—
troops long accustomed to oriental fighting, during the First
Afghan War (1838—42), cannot be explained in any way other
than that the British were outfought by the Afghans who were
armed with but primitive weapons. The Second Afghan War
(1878—1881) was another debacle. The Third Afghan War
(1919) proved conclusively that the vast development of Britain's
fighting methods during those four years (1914—1918) did not
enable her to subdue the Afghans.

The Afghan ideal of progress seems to consist in a proper
balance of material advancement and spiritual renovation. It
permits the assimilation of the substance of the great cultures
of the world, without impairing its national individuality. The
Afghans want to preserve a spiritual civilisation which is as
important as material progress, realising that the Western
civilisation, with all its great achievements in the field of science
and art and other departments of knowledge, is lacking in this
respect.

The Afghans are physically a very fine people. They are
of robust build, strong, stalwart and muscular. They have high


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noses, long faces and are of fair complexion. Their counte-
nances have an air of manliness and deliberation. They are
hardy and active, industrious and sober. No more potent
testimony to their power exists than the record of the Anglo-
Afghan wars.

Their manners are frank and open. Though manly and
independent they are entirely free from conceit and ferocity.
They are remarkable for their prudence, good sense and humour.

They have always been ardent sportsmen. From time
immemorial they have realised that physical culture and sports
are the important elements which enable one to overcome
difficulties and privations, and still remain cheerful, courageous
and firm. Physical endurance, ability to co-ordinate all move-
ments on any terrain, and overcome parching heat and bitter
frost—these qualities are acquired by the Afghans as a result of
constant attention to national sports, such as horse-riding,
mountaineering, and wrestling.

Even in present-day Afghan life, sports and physical
culture occupy an important part. Besides their own national
games, all modern European sports, such as football, volleyball,
hockey, basketball, handball and tennis have been introduced
and widely promoted throughout the country.

Among the Afghan games the one called Buzkashi (dragging
the goat) is indeed a feat of horsemanship. It is chiefly in
vogue in Northern Afghanistan (Mazar, Maimana, and
Kataghan provinces). Like polo, it is played on horseback by
two opposing teams, each consisting of 60 to 100 horsemen. The
first thing to be done is to kill a goat, a calf or a sheep, and
then to place the carcass in the middle of a circle. When this
is done, a signal is given, and all the riders make a dash at the
beheaded animal. The man who picks it up flings it across the


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saddle in front of him, and goes off at full gallop; the others chasing him until one of them catches up with him. While still at full gallop the two riders struggle for the possession of the body. The man who gets it is in turn chased by others, and when the carcass falls to the ground, as it often does, it is picked up as the riders gallop by, the horsemen riding with one leg and arm thrown over the horse to enable them to reach the ground. So the game continues until one of the teams is able to bring the body of the animal to the appointed spot and drop it in the circle, thus scoring a goal. The speed and agility of these horses as well as the remarkable skill of the riders is a wonderful and awe-inspiring sight.
The great delight of the Afghans, both male and female, is to dance the Attan. From ten to twenty men or women stand up in a circle. A person takes his place within the circle to sing or play on some instrument. The dancers then go through a number of attitudes and figures, sometimes singing, sometimes shouting, at other times clapping their hands and snapping their fingers in unison. Every now and then they join hands and move first slowly then swiftly, sometimes making a full circle round one leg, according to the music, while all join in the chorus.
Another game which is commonly played in the country goes by the name of Ghursai. A man takes his left foot in his right hand, and hops about one leg, endeavouring to knock down his opponent, who is advancing in the same way from the opposite direction. Hunting birds and animals is also a very popular amusement. The old methods of catching wild animals are still in vogue in some parts of the country. Men often go out with greyhounds (Afghan hounds), hawks, and falcons to catch birds and course hares, foxes and deer.


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The more prosperous hunters, equipped with shotguns, have live decoys which they place in a kind of pond (Nowr as it is locally called), built especially for the event. When the wild ducks fly over, the Judas-ducks call, and their wild brothers come down to be shot.

The farmers and villagers capture hundreds of game birds without arms of any kind. A favourite method is to build across a small stream a pond which empties with a gentle current. When the pond empties, the hunter builds a low hut of mud and twigs across it. The hut has a trap entrance and no exit. A flight of weary and unsuspecting ducks is attracted to the pond by decoys and are made to feel so much at home that they spend the night there. As they sleep, the current wafts them gently into the trap and they finish on the dining tables.

One of the most remarkable characteristics of the Afghans is their hospitality. The importance of this virtue is so much a national point of honour that their reproach to an inhospitable man is that he has no Pashtunwali, that is nothing of the customs of the Afghans. All persons indiscriminately are entitled to benefit by this practice, and a man who travels over the whole country, will never be in want of a meal, except perhaps in towns. For the feast given in honour of the guest, the host would not hesitate to kill the fattest sheep or the best fowls which he possesses. At dinner he presses the guest to have more and more, and entreats him not to spare, for there is plenty to eat. If the guest is not inclined to do full justice to all the dishes offered, the host feels rather insulted in the presence of his friends, who are always invited on such occasions.

Another remarkable custom peculiar to the Afghans is called Nang or Ninawati, that is, seeking the help or protection of


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others. A man who is in difficulty or has a favour to ask goes
to the house or tent of an Afghan on whom he depends, and
refuses to sit on his carpet, or to partake of his hospitality until
the boon is granted. The honour of the party thus solicited
will incur a stain if he does not grant the favour asked of him.
So far is this practice carried, that a man over-matched by his
enemy, will sometimes go Ninawati to the house of another man,
and entreat him to take up his quarrel, a request with which the
other is obliged to comply. A still stronger appeal is made when a
woman in distress sends her veil to an Afghan, calling upon
him as her brother, and imploring his assistance for herself
or her family. From this custom arises the obligation of
protecting and defending a fugitive, even against the govern-
ment, irrespective of his crime. Those who seek shelter under
the roof of an Afghan are to be defended at all cost. The code
followed by an Afghan is :

(1) An Afghan must grant to all fugitives the right of
asylum.

(2) An Afghan must offer hospitality even to his dreaded
enemy.

(3) An Afghan must wipe out insult with insult.

Another strange custom goes by the name of “Ghag-
Kawal”, which literally means “calling”. A lover, who is unable
to secure the object of his love by any other means, usually
resorts to this national custom. Repairing to the residence of
his beloved, he fires into the air just in front of her door, there-
by declaring his attachment to the girl. He then approaches her
father or guardian through the elders of the tribe, entreating to
forgive him for his audacity, and imploring the hand of his
daughter in marriage. Refusal of such a request often leads to
tribal feuds.


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Another peculiar custom is known by the name of "Tega-Ikhodil", that is "Laying the Stone". The rival tribes and families, in times of national emergency forget their mutual jealousies and strife, unite together against their common foe, and promise to respect the treaty and carry on the struggle till the national aim is achieved.

A strange custom in vogue in Kabul and the hilly districts goes by the name of Barfi (Barf means snow). On the occasion of the first fall of snow, friends address congratulatory letters to one another, containing a short Persian couplet which runs thus:

My dear, snow has come,
Snow is mine, but Barfi is yours.

Everybody on such occasions is on his guard and instructs his servants and family members not to receive any letter before first knowing the contents of it. Everyone tries to catch hold of the deliverer of such letters. If he is caught, he gets a good thrashing, and then is turned over to his master or the head of his family with face blackened. This means that the sender of the letter has lost the game—the Barfi, as it is called. He is then bound to arrange for a grand feast and to invite the winner and his friends to it. On the other hand, if the letter, by mistake, is received by the addressee and the deliverer makes good his escape, the addressee is to pay a similar penalty.

The Afghans pay much attention to good manners. Hand shaking and embracing are considered an important part of good manners. Even a stranger will be greeted with a hearty welcome and a hand-shake at any meeting.

The Afghans are light-hearted and sociable poeple. They do not laugh often, but they talk a good deal, and love a decent


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joke. Picnic parties are often arranged on holidays. They are
very fond of amusements. They play the flute, the rubab, a
sort of lute or guitar, and the tanboor.

But the centre of Afghan life is the tea-house, hundreds of
which dot every roadside. These are often clean open shelters
which serve as clubs for the village people and passers-by.
Here they gather round a big boiling samovar, quaffing tea, chat-
ting and discussing their social and economic problems in a friend-
ly atmosphere. Afghans are very fond of tea, especially green
tea, drinking sometimes 15 to 20 cups in an hour. These tea-
houses are seldom without a rubabi (one who plays on the rubab)
with a large number of eager listeners making a circle around him
keeping time with the music and nodding their heads in apprecia-
tion.

The Afghans love stories very much. The old men and
women are great story-tellers, and the young folk listen with
great interest to these stories, most of which are concerned with
the deeds of national heroes or those of genii and fairies. Dur-
ing winter they generally gather round the Sandali (a sort of
stove) or the hearth, listening attentively to the grandma, who
is an expert story-teller.

The basis of Afghan society is patriarchal, as it was in the
days of yore. Father or grandfather (generelly called Mushar
or Spingere—the venerable old man) is the head of the family.
He must be consulted on all important family matters. No one
should marry without his sanction. Permission to marry a daugh-
ter of his family is asked of him by the suitor through the
mediation of an intimate friend or elders of the locality. It is
a long and tedious process and sometimes takes weeks and
months before an agreement is reached. The selection of the


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mate is generally not the choice of the youth, but is looked upon as the chief concern of the parents. Parents as well as other members of the family have a good deal to say who should marry and whom. The wedding is celebrated in the house of the bride's parents, where the bridegroom, accompanied by his relatives and parents, repair in procession. Atter the nuptial is over, the bridegroom takes his wife's hand and returns to his house. On entering it, like the Aryans of old, he leads her to the family hearth (Naghare, as it is called). She tastes of the sweet dish (Halwa, a pudding) prepared for the occasion, and then becomes a bona fide member of her husband's family.

The Afghan family circle is a genial one. The wife is the mistress of the house. Women are generally considered equals. Husband and wife discuss family problems in an atmosphere of extreme friendliness and arrive at decisions. The husband assumes dominance in certain spheres, usually in managing finances and business arrangements, while the wife looks after children and other household affairs. The fact that the family atmosphere is healthy is evidenced by the fact of the lowest divorce rate in the world. A woman, after the death of her husband, is entitled to a share of his property.

As the family can only be continued in the male line, great importance is attached to the birth of a male child. An abundance of sons is constantly prayed for. Lack of male issue is looked upon as a bad omen.

The Afghan government plays a great rôle in the social and economic advancement of the people and has taken active steps in eradicating some of the old and ruinous customs and rites. Previously an Afghan youth had to buy his mate by paying a huge sum of money (called Walwar or Sheerbaha) to her parents. This is now strictly banned by the government and


Agricultural farm at Aliabad, Kabul.


Afghan Karakul skins are famous throughout the world.


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defaulters have to pay heavy fines. The municipalities in the cities and towns, and the government officials in rural areas have to keep a keen watch over these matters. Similarly, the government stepped in to curtail the former heavy expenses of marriage ceremonies and mourning, (called Murdahdari). Previously, great feasts were arranged on such occasions, which generally lasted for three continuous days and nights, and the expenses incurred were generally beyond the means of the parties concerned. These have now been reduced to a minimum. In case of marriages, the guests are invited to an evening tea, costing not more than a few hundred Afghanis, while the mourning ceremony is totally abolished. Friends and relatives now repair to the mosque (between 8 a.m. to 12 noon) to sympathize with the bereaved and pray for the departed soul of the deceased.

Modern means of transportation and communication, such as cars, tractors, airlines, radio, telegraph and telephone, and diffusion of knowledge have affected the lives of the people even in the remotest part of the country, and have been instrumental in bringing about some important changes in their social life.

The Afghans are extremely religious. Islam of the Sunni doctrine is the State religion, and almost all the Pashtuns, Tajiks, Turkomans, and Uzbeks belong to this sect. The Hazaras and Kizilbashes are mostly Shias. Besides, there are a few thousand Sikhs, Hindus and Jews living in cities and carrying on lucrative businesses.

The Afghans are of a tolerant nature and have a liberal attitude towards the followers of others religions, who enjoy perfect freedom in the observance of their religious ceremonies in every part of the country. On the occasions of religious festivals, they gladly go to the temples of their countrymen and take part in their festivities,


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The masses are frequently fatalistic and superstitious, believing in evil spirits and supernatural beings, whom they call by such names as Moder-i-All, Shishak, Ghul-i-Byaban. They believe that they generally haunt old neglected places, trees, graveyards, river banks, streams and "Byabans" (wilderness), and have the power to injure human beings. Strange stories are often heard of the mischiefs done by these ghosts and apparitions. Round the necks of the newly-born babes various sorts of talismans and amulets are hung with a view to avert evils. While praising any child for any attribute, especially good health, "Nam-i-Khuda" (God's name) must be said at once to avert the evil eye which open praise will beget. The evil eye is also supposed to be possessed by some persons, and God's name must be spoken to keep off its calamitous effect.

Some Afghans also claim to predict future events by studying the scapula of a sheep or by opening the Dewan of Hafiz, the well-known Persian poet, at random.

The Afghan standard of morality is pretty high. Drinking wine and other intoxicants, prostitution, and gambling are strictly forbidden throughout the country, and defaulters are severely punished.

PASTORAL LIFE: The manner of life of the Afghans is by no means uniform throughout the country. A small portion of the population is still leading a sort of nomadic life. The Kochis (as they are called) have no fixed habitat and chiefly live in tents—Ghizhdi. These tents are made of extended lattice work, covered with black felt manufactured from wool, and can be easily taken down, folded up and carried on the backs of the camels and cows. Life is chiefly dependent on the rearing of herds of camels, horses, cattle, sheep and goats. The flocks and


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herds are driven back and forth between the lowland and high-land pastures, over routes which they and their ancestors have followed for centuries. In so doing they generally cross international boundary lines, but it is often without objection on the part of the governments concerned. They claim certain grazing rights in pastures which they visit with their flocks, and these rights are seldom disputed. The various tribes wander over definite areas, recognized as their special preserves; but all seek higher districts in the middle of summer to avoid the heat and pests of the plains, and return to lower levels for the winter.

In these migrations they carry with them all of their possessions and so they live very simply. A single tent shelters a whole family. During the day time it usually furnishes all the shade to be had, while at night it can be closed to give protection from cold and winds.

It is indeed a fine spectacle to meet a caravan of Kochis moving. Huge shaggy camels lumber down the rocky steeps, followed by donkeys, horses, sheep, goats, and fierce-eyed watch-dogs. Among the animals walk the proud Kochis, tall, lean, fiery-looking, often carrying rifles on their shoulders. The women, contemptuous of veil, walk stalwartly along with the caravan, some even carrying guns. Young children, lambs, and hens are tied firmly on the top of the luggage.

At night they set up their woven tents, unroll their rugs and set the kettles and cooking pots over their smoky fires. Their only wealth is their livestock. These furnish the staple articles of diet; meat, butter, milk, cheese, curd, and kuroot (dried curded milk). Their wool is spun and woven into cloth for clothing, or is used in making rugs and tents.


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This pastoral life, though a difficult one, has many advantages. It is carefree and secure, uniting the advantages of various climates, and affording relief from the monotonous city life in frequent change of scenes, and never-failing sources of field sports. The nomad, accustomed to hardships, is strong, well-built and courageous.

The number of these tent-dwellers has greatly diminished during the past few years, and is still rapidly dwindling. The construction of dams and the creation of new acreage have been undoubtedly, a strong inducement to these wandering tribes to adopt a more settled mode of life.


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PART THREE

Language and Literature*

Pashto is the chief language of the Afghans and extends throughout the country. It is also spoken in Pashtunistan. Two main dialects are recognized—Yusufzai or Eastern and Kandahari.

Next to Pashto, Persian is the most important language of the country. It is spoken mostly in the cities and towns. Afghan Persian, or perhaps one should call it by its historical and literary name "Dari", still preserves the old distinction of madjhul and maruf between u and o and i and e, which does not exist in Iranian Persian of today.

The Afghans in all ages have played an important rôle in the cultural development of the civilized nations. The Rigveda of the early Aryans and the Avesta of Zoroaster are two of the most important classics of this country that have given the world religions and philosophies, which in range, depth, variety and power still command universal admiration.

We give here a short list of some of the Afghan writers and philosophers of the early Islamic period, who in creative power, quality of workmanship, intellectual force as well as in the delineation of soft emotions, in dramatic touch, in elegance, purity, vividness and grace, in sublimity of thought and style are to be compared with the best writers of the world. But for the works of these men, Persian literature could not have attained the high standard of excellence which it enjoys today. The first attempt to compose verses in Persian was made under

*Compiled by Dr. Ahmad Jawid, Professor of Persian Literature, Faculty of Letters, Kabul University.


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the Tahirids (820—872 A.D.). Of the many poets that flourished in this period, Hanzala-i-Badghisi of Herat (died in 841) is first in merit and in point of time. He was the author of a number of lyrics and quatrains. Unfortunately, all his verses are lost and we possess only two couplets of his which are cited by Nizami Arozi.

Of the most accomplished writers of the Samanid period (874—1000 A.D.) mention may be made of Shahid-i-Balkhi, Abu Shukur-i-Balkhi and Abdul Fath Busti. Abu Shukur-i-Balkhi is the oldest literary representative of this period. He invented the famous verse form known as Masnawi or the double-rhymed poem, and was also the first poet to compose in the Rubai or quatrain form which in later centuries became the most popular vehicle of mystical thought. He may fairly be considered as the forerunner of Daqiqi in Masnawi. From the few specimens of Abu Shukur that have come down to us, it appears that he was the perfect master of this form of verse. Abul Fath Busti is another very famous writer of this age. After the downfall of the Samanids he came to Ghazni and joined the literary circle of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.

Rabia-i-Balkhi : A very interesting and conspicuous literary figure of this period is a woman poet, Rabia by name. She was born at Balkh towards the close of the ninth century A.D. and was a contemporary of Rodaki, the poet-laureate of the Samanid court. Her surpassing beauty coupled with her mental accomplishment spread her fame far and wide and she naturally became the cynosure of neighbouring eyes. But she was passionately in love with a handsome Turkish youth, Baktash by name, who met the advances of his sweetheart with equal ardour. Their love soon became the talk of the neighbourhood. When she learned that it was not possible for her to marry the lover, her


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wounded heart and delicate spirit turned to meditation and
found solace in refuge. The pious believers could not even
tolerate this "sin" ; so they secretly despatched her to "heaven."
Her tragic death, however, excited universal sympathy and
invested her with a halo of romantic idealism.

Rabia was a richly gifted poetess, and her exquisite verses
take us to a high pitch of mystic thought and absorption. Her
poetry is the dominant note of Persian theosophy.

Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (998-1030 A.D.) was a great
conqueror as well as an eminent patron of learning. He himself
was a cultured man and invited the poets, leading writers and
scholars of the age to his magnificent court where he gave them
all possible help. Owing to this liberal encouragement, Sultan's
court at Ghazni soon became the rendezvous of the most
brilliant scholars and savants-such as Firdausi, Unsuri, Farukhi,
Asadi, Asjadi, Ghazali, Behaqui and Manuchehri. Unsuri, the
poet-laureate of the court of Ghazni, was a native of Balkh.
He was in the prime of life when he was sent to Ghazni by
Nasr bin Subuktagin, Sultan's brother. Mahmud received him
warmly and made him the poet-laureate of his court. He lived
in great pomp and show and had hundreds of pages to wait
upon him. Besides being an eminent poet he was a great
philosopher and an erudite scholar. The four hundred poets
that formed the famous "Round-Table" of the Sultan took
advice and inspiration from him. Unsuri is noted for his
beautiful metaphors and pure, vigorous diction. His death
occurred in 1049 A.D.

Farukhi of Seistan was a celebrated poet, a very skilful
harpist and a keen observer of nature. His poetical works
display some of the best qualities of the Persian poetry of this
period. He is noted for his famous elegy composed immediately


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after the death of the Sultan. Asjadi was a native of Herat but received his training at Ghazni under the supervision of Unsuri.

Avicenna, or Ibn Sina as he is known in the East, the world famous philosopher and physician, was born at Afshana, a small village near Bukhara in 980 A.D. Abdulla, Avicenna's father, was a native of Balkh. Avicenna was educated at Bukhara, where the Samanid Nuh II had his court. By the age of ten he had learnt the Quran by heart. He then applied himself to the study of arithmetic, geometry, Muslim jurisprudence, logic and metaphysics. Not long afterwards he was called upon to treat Nuh ibn Mansur for an illness which the others had failed to cure. Avicenna succeeded remarkably and was rewarded by the grateful ruler with a high post at the court and was also permitted to use the royal library. There he found a large collection of rare books and was thereby enabled to extend his knowledge still further.

After the collapse of the Samanids, Avicenna went to Gurgan, in north-east Persia, where he began the Qanun fil Tibb, the "Cannon of Medicine", the first of his two major works. His second famous book is called Kitab-i-Shifa, the "Book of Remedy", a treatise on Aristotelian philosophy and science.

Avicenna had been endowed with an excellent constitution, but in his later days he overtaxed his strength and fell into ill-health. He died at Hamadan in 1037 A.D.

Avicenna is looked upon as a great authority in philosophy and medicine, and his book, The Shifa, written in Arabic, is a monument of patient research, critical study and close observation. Some of his works were used as text books in European universities until the close of the 19th century.


Faculty of Letters, Kabul University. Staff & Students (1956).


The Staff of the Maternity Hospital, Kabul.


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Abdullah Ansari of Herat was a voluminous writer and a great philosopher. He possesses a clear, straightforward style. His dominant theme is the transitory character of this life. His Munajat "prayers" is a fine specimen of Persian prose. He was born in Herat in 1006 and died there in 1088. His mausoleum is held in greatest veneration even to this day. Nasir-i-Khusro, a great writer and poet, was born at Qubadiyan, near Balkh in 1004 A.D. He was well-versed in mathematics, Greek philosophy, natural science and Oriental philosophy.

Rashid-ud Din Watwat was born at Balkh. He was the poet-laureate of Sultan Atsiz Khwarazamshah and possessed great powers as a writer and a poet. He died in 1182 A.D.

Sanai : Abul Majd Majdud Sanai, the famous mystic poet and one of the greatest theological writers of the age, was a native of Ghazni. He flourished in the reigns of the Ghaznavid Sultans—Ibrahim (1059-1099), his son Masud (1099-1114) and his grandson Bahram Shah (1118-1152). He died between 1140 and 1150 A.D. at Ghanzi, where his mausoleum still exists.

He started his career as court panegyrist. An accident changed the entire course of his life and made him devote his time to religious exercises, pious meditation and the composition of Sofic poetry. His poetry is among the most eloquent, learned and powerful works of the age. Some of his poems are looked upon as the best specimens of Persian poetry.

Rumi : Jalaud Din Mohammed is known in the East as Maulana or Maulawi, in the West as Rumi. He was born at Balkh in 1202 A.D. When he was six years old his father, Baha Walad, a teacher and theologian of note, decided to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. He thus began a period of travels which lasted throughout his son's most impressionable years. They visited the main cultural centres of the Near East and finally


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settled at Qoniya (Iconium), in Asia Minor. Maulana died
there in 1274. His grand tomb at Qoniya may still be seen.
Rumi is one of the greatest Sofi poets of all ages.
Amir Khusro: The father of Amir Khusro, Amir Moham-
mad Saifud Din, came from Balkh to India and settled at
Patiala, where Khusro was born in 1253. Khusro was a brilliant
boy and commenced literary work at a very early age. He was
a great writer and produced a large number of works both in
prose and poetry. There was no form of Persian poetry which he
left untouched and in each of these he attained singular success.
The Timurids (1405-1519 A. D.), like the Ghaznavids, were great
patrons of learning and the arts. Their court at Herat was a
resort of scholars, artists and philosophers. Behzad, the well-
known Oriental painter, lived at their court. One of the great-
est writers of this age is Amir Alisher Nawai. He was born in
1440 and received his education in the same college with his
future sovereign, Sultan Hussain Mirza. He was first appointed
as the Keeper of the Royal Seal, but was soon promoted to the
highest post—that of the Prime Minister of the Sultan. He was
no less distinguished for his great learning and high statesman-
ship than for his munificent patronage of letters. He is the
founder of the famous Khilasiyya convent of Herat, a retreat
for literary men of merit. His home also was open to scholars
of all nationalities, whom he received with every mark of respect.
Mirkhond: Mirkhond was born in 1433. His father, a
pious and learned man, lived at Balkh. After the death of his
father, Mirkhond went to Herat, where he succeeded in gaining
the favour of that celebrated patron of letters, Alisher Nawai.
He received every mark of kindness and encouragement from this
distinguished personage and began at his request his great work
on universal history, Rauzat-us-Safa in 1474 A.D. It is one of


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the most marvelous literary achievements and the greatest single production of the age. In the opinion of competent judges, there is no oriental work in Persian that has greater literary merit or more valuable information than Mirkhond's history. It is comprised of seven large volumes and a geographical appendix. The author had just compiled the sixth volume when he died at Balkh after a lingering illness (1498 A. D.). He had worked on these six volumes for a period of thirty-three years. The last and seventh volume was compiled by his grandson, Khondmir.
Jami: Abdur Rahman Jami, the last classical Persian poet, was born in 1414, at Jam, a village in Herat. He was endowed with such extensive and varied learning that he was thought peerless in his own time. Even princes, who were themselves men of erudition and possessed great talents, lavished upon him the most unbounded praise and the highest honours. He was an intimate friend of Sultan Abu Said (1452-1467) and his successor, Sultan Hussain Bayaqra (1467-1504). Alisher had geat admiration for the vast knowledge and exemplary character of Jami.
Jami has a lucid, fascinating style and a magnificent diction. He was not only a great poet but a moral writer and teacher as well. He died at Herat in 1492.
Sultan Hussain Mirza himself was a man of great talents and fine literary taste. He invited to his court the most cultured spirits of the time and appointed them to responsible government posts.
During the Timurid period the cities of Afghanistan became brilliant with architectural masterpieces. Herat, the capital, was magnificently embellished with palaces, mosques, shrines and madrasas (college). New materials and new techniques came into use, some of them reflecting Chinese influence. Marble,


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alabaster, granite, jade and coloured tiles sheathed the structural
fabric of these monuments. The task of cutting, fitting and
fixing mosaic faience panels took several years. Members of the
royal family, especially. Shah Rukh, his gifted wife Gohar Shad
Agha and Sultain Hussain Bayaqra personally supervised these
constructions.

In 1417 Gohar Shad Agha ordered the construction of two
structures of great size and elegance. One was a Mussalah (a
place for public worship) located outside the city. The other
was a madrasa.

Hussain Bayaqra, in his turn, adorned his capital with
hospitals, and other public buildings. Immediately adjacent to
the Mussalah of Gohar Shad Agha he built a madrasa almost one
hundred and fifty feet high, forming a startling pattern against
the sky.

His minister and keeper of the royal seal, Ali Sher Nawai,
also contributed a good deal to the embellishment of Herat.
Through the efforts of these people Herat became one of the most
beautiful cities of the East. This is why some of historians call
this period "The Renaissance of Asia".

Pashto Literature. Literature in both the Persian and Pash-
to languages had their origins during the early Muslim centuries
Pashtu was in current use during the Ghaznavid and Timurid
periods. Unfortunately, most of the literature is lost and only
fragments of the earliest poems have survived in Arabic transla-
tions. The Putteh Khazana (Secret Treasure) published in
Khandahar in 1729 A.D., included Pashto poems of the eighth and
ninth centuries Amir Kror, called Jehan Pehlavan, a ruler of Ghor
in the second half of the eighth century, is said to have composed
poems in Pashto and later in the ninth century Sheikh Raza Lodi,