124

wrote Pashto poetry. From that time until the 16th century there was little Pashto Literature of note

The body of existing literature of Pashto begins with the 16th century, and is mainly poetical in character, but there are also a few important works in prose, especially histories, such as Akhund Darveza's Makhzan-i-Pashto and Makhzan-i-Islam, and Afzal Khan Khattak Tarikh-i-Murassa. The principal poets are Khushhal Khan Khattak, Mirza Khan Ansari, a poet of the Sofi school, and the popular poets Abdur Rahman and Abdul Hamid, who have both left Diwans of a mystical character. Abdul Qadir Khattak, Ahmad Shah Durrani and Peer Mohammed Kakar are also looked upon as some of the best Pashto poets of the age.

Khushhal Khan Khattak is the most famous of the Afghan poets. He was the chief of Khattaks, a powerful and warlike tribe living around Peshawar. He was born in the early part of the 17th century, and died at a ripe old age towards its close. He lived through a portion of the reign of the Emperor Jehangir, the whole of that of Shah Jehan, and the greater part of that of Aurangzeb. Shah Jehan treated him kindly and generously. Aurangzeb reversed the temporizing policy of his father in relations with the Afgan tribes and thus made a bitter enemy of Khushhal Khan. Khushhal never alludes to Aurangzeb in his poems except in terms of extreme hatred and contempt. Khushhal's poems are full of expressions of patriotic feelings, decriptions of contest with the Mughals and of reference to his bold stand against the Emperor. He appears to have been indeed a man of most extraordinary vigour of mind and exceptional versatility of talent. His poems are the true expression of the national character and the circumstances of his adventurous life.


125

The present Afghan Government encourages the diffusion
of the Pashto language among all classes by every possible means.
Every Government official is required to learn this language and
to appear in an examination. Special classes are conducted in
each office to teach Pashto. Because of this encouragement,
Pashto literature has made considerable progress recently and a
large number of books and periodicals have appeared.


126
PART FOUR
The Government

The Constitution : Afghanistan is a Constitutional Monarchy, and the laws are based on the religious laws of Islam, according to the school of Imam Abu Hanifa. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament, which is made up of the King, a Senate and a National Assembly.

The written constitution of the country had its origin in 1923; the unwritten constitution, based on national customs and traditions, dates back to the pre-Islamic period. The written constitution promulgated in 1923 was amended twice; once in the year 1928, and a second time in 1931 during the reign of the late King, Mohammad Nadir Shah-i-Shahid. According to this constitution, Afghanistan is a constitutional monarchy, Parliament consists of :

(1) The King.

(2) The Majlis-i-Shura-i-Milli (the House of Representatives). The members of this House are elected directly by the people from all provinces and districts according to the Election laws for a period of three years. The House of Representatives consists of 171 members. Suffrage is not restricted to any property or tax qualifications, but is extended to all Afghan nationals of over twenty years of age, possessing sound moral character.

(3) The Majlis-i-Ayan (the Senate) is composed of sixty experienced elders, nominated by the King in recognition of their past services to the country. They are men who have had long experience in public affairs as governors, ambassadors, or Cabinet ministers, and constitute, therefore, something corresponding to a "Council of Elder Statesmen".


127

Parliament alone has the power to pass new laws, and to amend or repeal the existing ones. If a question is approved by the Senate, but is not accepted by the House of Representatives, the matter is referred to a Committee composed of 40 members, twenty from each House. The Committee, after discussing and investigating fully the controversial issue, passes it on to the House of Representatives together with its recommendations. If the House is still in disagreement, the question is referred to the King, whose decision is final. The representatives of each House enjoy perfect freedom in the expression of their opinions while discussing a problem. The Parliament also has the power to control the Executive. Individual Ministers are responsible to the Parliament for their actions, and the Cabinet as a whole for its joint administration.

Loya-Jirga (the Grand Assembly): In times of national emergency a Loya-Jirga is held. All the prominent figures of the country are invited to take part in this Grand Assembly. The last such Assembly was held in 1955 wherein the members approved of the Government's foreign policy as regards Pashtunistan and the purchase of arms and ammunition from foreign countries.

The King: In view of the innumerable services of the late King Mohammad Nadir Shah on various occasions for the cause of the country, the nation, through its representatives, has made the following provisions regarding the right of succession to the Afghan throne and the duties of the King under the Constitution :

(1) That the House of Nadir Shah will be the reigning house of Afghanistan.
(2) That the Khutba will be read and coins struck in the name of the King.


An Afghan girl with a water pitcher.


An Afghan girl in National dress.


128

(3) The conferring of honours and titles, the appointment
of the Prime Minister, approval of appointments or dismissal of
Cabinet Ministers, the appointment of the Commander-in-Chief,
the declaration or termination of war will fall within the royal
prerogatives.

(4) The King before his coronation, pledges himself to
the nation in the presence of the members of the Parliament:
(a) to protect the true religion of Islam;
(b) to defend the independence of the country;
(c) to safeguard the right of the people;
(d) to endeavour for the material and educational develop-
ment of the country and the welfare of the people;
(e) and to rule the country in accordance with the sacred
laws of Islam and the Fundamental Laws of the country.

According to this Constitution the King must belong to the
Hanafi sect of Islam.

Duties & Powers of the House of Representatives:
(1) Election of the President of the House.
(2) Inquiry into every Government Department and
ratification legislative bills or proposals.
(3) Checking all financial matters, new taxes and new evalu-
ation of taxable property.
(4) Investigation and approval of Budget.
(5) Approving and chartering of commerical companies.
(6) Approval of treaties and negotiations, sanctioning of
commercial, industrial and agricultural monopolies, foreign as
well as local.
(7) Approval of the debts, foreign as well as local.


129

Except in the case of secret sessions, which are held under
specified rulings, the debates of the House of Representatives
take place openly, and spectators and press representatives
are not barred from entering the House and hearing the
discussions.

The Cabinet: The executive power is in the hands of the
Cabinet Ministers, who are nominated by the Prime Minister
with the approval of the King. The Ministers carry on their
duties under the rules and regulations passed from time to time
by the Parliament. The Ministers, individually and jointly,
are responsible to the Parliament, and may be tried by a Supreme
Court for negligence of duty entrusted to them. In other
matters outside their official capacity they are treated like
ordinary citizens.

Internal disagreements in the Cabinet may lead to the
resignation of individual members and their replacement, or
may even cause the resignation of the entire Cabinet.

The present Cabinet consists of a Prime Minister (called
Sadri-Azam) and the following Ministers and Presidents:
(1) Minister of National Defence.
(2) Minister of Foreign Affairs.
(3) Minister for the Interior.
(4) Minister for Justice.
(5) Minister for Finance.
(6) Minister for Education.
(7) Minister for Trade & Commerce.
(8) Minister for Health.
(9) Minister for Public Works.
(10) Minister for Mines & Industries.
(11) Minister for Posts & Telegraphs.


130
(12) Minister of Agriculture.
(13) President of the National Assembly.
(14) President of the Senate.
(15) President of the Press Department.
(16) President of the Department of Tribal Affairs.
Ministers who have no seat in the Cabinet:
(1) Minister of the Royal Court (Wazir-i-Durbar.)
(2) Chief Secretary (Sar-Munshi) to H.M. the King.
Rights of any Afghan Citizen :
According to the Constitution every Afghan national, irrespective of colour, race, creed or religion, has equal rights and is eligible to all the Government posts. No person is to be imprisoned, detained or punished without due trial by a law court. Slavery and all sorts of forced labour are strictly prohibited and defaulters are dealt with severely.
The Afghan Coat of Arms: The Coat of Arms of the King and the official seal of the Government consist of a design representing a dome, two minarets, and the pulpit of a mosque (the Arch & Pulpit) with the 'mehrab' (niche) in the centre, banners on either side, and the entire design almost completely encircled by sheaves of wheat. In 1747 A.D., when Ahmed Shah Durrrani was elected King of Afghanistan in a tribal Jirga (Assembly) held at Kandahar, a certain dervish, Sabar by name, made a wreath of sheaves of wheat and placed it on his head instead of a crown. Since then the sheaves of wheat in the form of a wreath appear on the royal seal and all official documents.
The Afghan Flag: The Afghan flag carries the above insignia in the centre of a rectangular field consisting of three stripes—black, red and green,—placed perpendicularly.


131

Afghan Foreign Policy: Afghanistan is a peace-loving country. As in the First World War, it was able to keep its complete neutrality in World War II. It wants to have the most friendly relations with all countries of the wolrd, especially its neighbours. It has no aggressive designs, nor would it submit to interference in its internal affairs from any quarter. It is a firm and faithful member of the United Nations Organization, and sincerely believes that this world organization can save mankind from the horrors of modern warfare and annihilation. It is also of the opinion that international disputes, however serious they may be, can best be solved through the medium of this world association of nations by peaceful means in an atmosphere of mutual trust, goodwill and cordiality, and not by any recourse to arms, which eventually would ruin both victor and vanquished.


132

Education in Afghanistan*

As the cradle of ancient civilizations, Afghanistan has a glorious past. History bears witness to the fact that the eras of learning and civilization through which she has passed were never limited by any physical or geographical boundaries. On the contrary, she has reared scholars and literary personalities of world renown. But modern educational institutions in Afghanistan are not more than 50 years old. During this period the setting up of educational and training establishments for public instruction have been made part of public services. Schools have been established in all parts of the country at State expense. These Schools are being daily extended and improved upon according to modern educational methods and environmental needs.

At present a Ministry, called the "Ministry of Education" exists for the purpose of controlling and mantaining a steady progress in education matters. The Ministry is headed by the Minister of education, who is a Cabinet Minister and personally responsible to the Parliament. Two Deputies designated "Instructional Deputy Minister" and "Administrative Deputy Minister" are at the helm of all educational and administrative works of the Ministry. Under the provisions of the Constitution, primary education in Afghanistan, for the first six years, is free and compulsory. Middle, secondary and higher education for both boys and girls is also free; textbooks, exercise books, pens, slates, and other supplies are all provided free of cost by the Ministry. In schools with hostels, food, clothing,

*Based on a Report entitled "Education in Afghanistan" published by the Ministry of Education.


133

bedding, and all other necessary expenses of the students are
borne by the State.

The Afghan Government, within the limits of its resources,
is steadily encouraging the educational advancement of the people
and devotes about 20% of its total revenue to education. Of
course, lack of trained teachers is at present detrimental to
rapid progress in this line. It has been estimated that no less
than 30,000 trained teachers are required for universal elementary
education. The present Teachers' Training Schools and
Colleges produce from 150 to 200 teachers a year. Today,
more than fifty per cent of the persons in the teaching
profession are untrained. Even assuming a high degree of
natural aptitude and devotion to work, lack of technical training
is a bar to complete efficiency.

Elementary schools in Afghanistan have six grades.
Secondary education also covers a period of six years. After
twelve successful years in the public schools, a student is allowed
to join one of the colleges (called Faculties). There are at
present nine degree colleges affiliated with a Kabul University,
viz., the Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Law, Faculty of Letters,
Faculty of Science, Faculty of Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture,
Faculty of Civil Service, Faculty of Theology, and Faculty for
Girls. In addition to these, there is an "Institute of Education",
which is also attached to the University. This Institute is
supervised by Afghan teachers assisted by specialists from
Columbia University. In addition, there is also a Medical School,
a Military School, a Military College, a Commercial School, two
Technical Institutes, a School for Mechanical Crafts, a School
for Carpentry, Tailoring and Fine Arts, schools for adults, both
men and women, School for Islamic Studies, a School for Nurses,
and a School of Agriculture.


134

The first Lycee (Intermediate College) was established in Afghanistan during the reign of the late Amir Habibullah Khan in 1903. The School was staffed by Indian teachers, and its curriculum was based on the Indian system of education. After Afghanistan achieved its independence, the Government realized that Habibia College alone could not meet the educational needs of the country. During the reign of Amanullah Khan, the foundation was laid for new schools such as Istiklal, Nijat, and Ghazi, and English, German and French were also added to the curriculum. A large number of students, both boys and girls, were sent abroad (to Turkey, Germany and France) for higher education. A movement for better educational facilities was therefore set afoot. Unfortunately, these lycees had not made much progress when the catastrophic upheaval of 1929 swept the country. The schools were closed and the educational programme collapsed. After the emancipation of the country at the hands of King Mohammad Nadir Shah, renewed attention was paid to the educational uplift of the country. Under the patronage of the Government, the lycees re-opened and commenced to forge ahead at full speed. The Istiklal and Nijat Lycees presented graduates for the first time in 1931 and 1934, respectively.

Inasmuch as economic, agricultural, industrial, adminis-trative and social development in the country needed qualified personnel, teachers, and administrators, the Ministry of Education cencentrated its educational resources on the following three areas in conformity with the views of the Gevernment.

(1) To train teachers abroad and within the country;
(2) To train administrative personnel for the varlous Government Departments;


135

(3) To establish primary and secondary schools in the provinces, and to spread literacy among the masses.

In spite of the crippling effects of the revolution and many economic difficulties, the Government gradually and successfully forged ahead with its programme until the out-break of World War II which again brought all activities, especially in the field of education, to a standstill. Most of the foreign teachers (Germans, and Italians) were forced to leave Afghanistan. Books and teaching matericals were difficult to obtain, and what could be procured was not enough. The result was that further expansion was not possible and fewer students were admitted into the school.

After the War, the Ministry of Education carefully reviewed its plans and began implementing its programmes in earnest. Here is a summary of what the Ministry is attempting to accomplish:

(1) To strengthen the teachers' training schools, administratively and educationally;
(2) To make primary and secondary school programmes more functional in character;
(3) To strengthen technical, commercial and agricultural schools;
(4) To strengthen the Faculties of Letters and Science for the training of secondary schools teachers;
(5) To engage the services of national and foreign experts;
(6) To complete existing school buildings and to lay foundations for new ones;
(7) To increase the number of primary schools and to strengthen them in every way;


136

(8) To increase publications of the Ministry of Education
and to establish a printing press of its own;
(9) To open village schools where regular primary schools
cannot be established;
(10) To open courses for adult education and to improve
existing ones;
(11) To seek educational assistance from friendly countries,
and from UNESCO, and to put to proper use the aid
received;
(12) To reconsider administrative organizations and their
duties;
(13) To revise textbooks, and to complete teaching guides to
text books;
(14) To obtain teaching materials from within and without
the country;
(15) To revise the curriculum of various schools;
(16) To enlighten the masses of the country by publishing
materials of common interest;
(17) To improve hostels and boarding houses;
(18) To strengthen provincial secondary schools;
(19) To revise manuals and textbooks;
(20) To send larger numbers of students abroad for higher
educational training at Government expense;
(21) To take advantage of scholarships and fellowships
offered by friendly countries and by international
Organizations.
Among the recent developments made by the Ministry of
Education, is the establishment of a new Department of


137

Community and Fundamental Education. This Department has been set up to co-operate with the Rural Development Project, to implement education in the provinces, to open courses for adult education, and to supervise students of teacher training school who are being trained in the Rural Development Project. It is hoped that this Department will help the Ministry of Education considerably in achieving its goal of raising standards of living.

Today the Ministry of Education is equipped with an efficient staff, men of great abilities and talents, and considerable educational experience. It has contact with international organizations and what many educational institutions of friendly countries, and is making increasing use of the assistance and recommendations extended to it.


138

Community Development Activities in Afghanistan
From the point of view of technology, the people of Afghanistan have been left several miles behind in the caravan of today's highly developed society. With a view to improving the socio-economic condition of the rural people who constitute 95% of the total population of the country, the Government of Afghanistan in January, 1952, invited the United Nations Technical Assistance Mission to submit proposals for the establishment of community development centres in the country.

A Committee composed of experts from Specialized Agencies of the United Nations working at that time in Afghanistan submitted its recommendations in August, 1952, and advised the Government that intensive work in the field of health, education, agriculture, social welfare, handicrafts, etc., be undertaken in the twin villages of Shewaki and Deh Yakoub situated on the banks of the Logar River, about seven miles from the capital city, Kabul.

The Government having accepted these recommendations, the programme was initiated in September, 1954. A meeting of the village elders was arranged in the village of Shewaki, with a view to assessing their needs. The village elders expressed their desire to co-operate whole heartedly with the government officials. These officials, with active assistance from the experts of the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, succeeded in establishing the following basic institutions and introducing the improved practices and techniques to help the village People :

(1) A health centre with a clinic and three maternity and child welfare centres ; environmental sanitation survey ; immunization against diseases ; and the construction of latrines, wells, drains and compost pits, etc.


139

(2) An agricultural centre, including a veterinary clinic
and a plant protection centre, with a view to under
taking the following operations:

(a) Immunizaton of animals against contagious
diseases.

(b) Treatment of animals for diseases and minor ail
ments.

(c) Upgrading of cattle and poultry, including castra
tion of scrub-bulls, etc.

(d) Organizing sericulture demonstration centres.

(e) Seed cleaning programme.

(f) Demonstration of improved farm tools and imple
ments, particulary scythes and seed drills.

(g) Control of plant diseases and pests.

(h) Demonstration of improved cultural practices in
farming and horticulture.

(3) Social education activities and organization of Commu
nity centres, including also the following activities:

(a) Organizing adult literacy classes in the villages.

(b) Organizing Rural schools (kindergarten sections).

(c) Inaugurating activities for local action, such as
roads, bridges, culverts, etc., and their mainte
nance and repair.

(d) Organizing community centres in the villages
with provision of a reading room, library, indoor
games, and outdoor games, musical entertain
ment through radios and gramophones.

(e) Opening primary schools for girls.


140
(f) Introduction of gardening and crafts in primary schools for boys.
(4) Social welfare activities, including baby-care, home economics and home-management, organizing women’s welfare centres and rural recreations.
(5) A craft centre for training the village youth and village carpenters in making furniture, etc.
(6) A training centre for the following categories of workers for future community project blocks :
(a) Village level workers. The first group of 25 workers, after completing their training, is now working in Mohammad Agha Community Project block with the Near East Foundation. Another group of 30 workers is now under training.
(b) Community leaders (auxiliary workers for social education and adult literacy activities). First group shall be available in 1957.
Most of these activities are new to the rural areas and several of them were introduced in the country for the first time. They are gradually being accepted by the people, who are now enthusiastically co-operating with the government officials in developing them. The area under the demonstration was, therefore, extended to thirty villages in September, 1955, covering the administrative division of Bagrami in Kabul Province. However, the demonstrative project block now includes another administrative division of Charasia, increasing the total number of villages to about 60.
In March, 1956, the Government prepared a five-year programme for economic development in which community development activities were given high priority, second only to agricultural development. This policy has been approved by the National Assembly.


141

The government, under this policy, proposes to extend the community development projects and activities to 2,220 villages in the course of five years at a total cost of 166 million Afghanis.

The object of the Community Development programme is not only to provide ample food, clothing, shelter, health, education and recreational facilities. All these are, of course, there, but more important than this material improvement is the realization that what is required is a change in the mental outlook of the people; instilling in them an ambition for a higher standard of living and the will and determination to work for such standards. It is conceived as an organized co-operative enterprise by the people on the one hand and the different Ministries of the Government on the other. It seeks to build up the community and the individual and to make the latter a builder, not only of his own village, but of his country as well.


142

PART FIVE

An Historical Sketch

Afghanistan has figured prominently at various times in the
history of Central Asia. Few other countries compare with it
as regards past history, rich archæological remains and the
part played by it in the development of human thought and
culture. The history of its civilization goes back at least five
thousand years. It was a seat of culture at a time when Egypt
and Babylonia were serving the cause of human thought and
art. Balkh (Bactria of old) can boast of having been one of the
great centres of ancient civilizations. It was from here that the
Aryan culture found its way into India and the adjacent
countries. And again it was here that Zoroaster preached his
religion, which later on became the state religion of Persia for
many centuries.

Situated in the heart of Asia, Afghanistan naturally became
even in those ancient times the meeting ground of at least three
great civilizations of the world—Aryan or Bactrian, Græco-Bac-
trian, and Græco-Budhist. Similarly, it was a great centre of trade
and served as an entrepot of thought and merchandise between
India, China and the countries of the West.

Later on in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D., Islam infused
new life into the country, bringing about a fundamental revolu-
tion. The ancient culture was either replaced or came comple-
tely under the influence of the new, which has remained the
decisive force in Afghan life to this very day.

In the early part of the eleventh century A.D., during the
Ghaznavide period, Afghanistan once more became a flourishing


143

centre of learning and trade. It suffered heavily at the hands of the Mughals in the 13th and 14th centuries when some of its great cities, such as Balkh, Bamian, Herat and Ghazni were literally wiped out.

Again, in the 15th century, through the efforts of the Timurides, Herat became a great centre of culture and art. This period has rightly been called "The Renaissance of the East". The benevolent Timuride dynasty was overthrown in the beginning of the 16th century by the Safavids of Persia and the Shibanis of Trans Oxiania. Western Afghanistan was occupied by the Persians, while the eastern part came under the influence of the Mughals. This state of affairs lasted until the beginning of the 18th century.

The Rise of the Hotakis : Mir Vais Khan, one of the most influential chiefs, who held the office of Kalantar (Mayor), led a revolt against Gurgin, the Persian governor of Kandahar. The Persians, caught unawares could not offer effective resistance and were killed to a man (1709). Mir Vais Khan took the reins of government in his own hands without assuming the royal title. He was content to be called 'Mishr' or Chief of his people. Subsequent Persian expenditions, once 20,000 strong, failed to recapture Kandahar, and Mir Vais was left in full possession of the whole province until his death in 1715.

Simultaneously, the Abdalis of Herat, encouraged by the success of the Hotakis at Kandahar, took up arms against the Persians, and were ultimately successful in liberating their Province. Mahmoud, Mir Vais' son and successor, was not content with the possession of Kandahar and aspired to be a great king. He resolved to plunge right into the heart of Persia and strike at the root of the effeminate Safavide Empire. In 1722, at the


A Nomad Camp, a usual sight in Afghanistan.


The Afghan House of Parliament.


144

head of 20,000 men he made straight for Isfahan, the Persian capital. The degenerate Safavide government could offer no effective resistance. After a siege of six months, Shah Hussain, the last of the Safavids, came out of the city and surrendered himself to Mahmoud.

Mahmoud, in spite of his tender age, was a man of talent and energy and set himself to reorganize Persia. But he was not destined to see the fruits of his labours. He died shortly after (1725) and was succeeded by his cousin, Ashraf.

Like Mahmoud, Ashraf, too, was young and energetic, but he came to power at a very critical time. The Afghans in Persia were now threatened on all sides. The Russians were advancing from the north, while the Turks had made themselves masters of the western part of the country. Shah Ashraf was able to stop the Russian advance at Darband and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turks who were marching on the capital. While he was thus engaged, news was brought to him that a brigand chief, Nadir Kuli Khan (who later came to be known as Nadir Shah of Persia) had attacked Tus and was on his way to take Herat. Ashraf, busy on other fronts, was greatly alarmed to learn this disquieting news. Losing no time, he collected all the troops available and hastened to the north to meet the Persians. At Damaghan, he found the Persians strongly entrenched. The Afghans, although tired and worn out by their long and tedious journey through one of the most inhospitable parts of the country, could not desist from at once attacking the enemy in their strong position. The Persians received the shock, reeled and staggered but kept their ground. The Afghans made a second assault. This, too, failed to achieve its object. Exhausted already from their long journey, they fell back in the direction of Isfahan,


145

hotly pursued by the enemy, who gave them no time to reorganize their army (October 2, 1729). Finding their position untenable even at the capital, the Afghans departed with all the members of their families. Ashraf, with a few faithful followers, endeavoured to reach his native land via Seistan, but was treacherously murdered by a Baluch chief, who thereby hoped to get a reward from his enemy-Nadir Kuli. This ended the Afghan rule in Persia (1730 A.D.).

Nadir Shah of Persia Invades Afghanistan:

Nadir, after consolidating his position in Persia, turned his attention to the east with a view to taking Herat. The Abdalis at this juncture were besieging Meshed. Zulfikar Khan, son of Mohammad Zaman Khan and brother of Ahmad Khan (later Ahmad Shah Durrani) appealed to Mir Hussain of Kandahar (brother of Mahmoud) for help. Saidal Khan Nasir, a Ghilzai chief of repute, was despatched to their succour. In an engagement near the Afghan border, the Afghans were able to inflict crushing defeat on the Persians. Nadir with only eighty men was cut off from the rest of his army and took shelter in a small tower. This would have been the end of the drama, but no one recognized him and the golden opportunity was allowed to slip away.

Nadir made good his escape, and on receiving reinforcements, once more took the offensive and marched on Herat. The besieged fought desperately, but dissensions in their ranks forced them to sue for peace. Nadir, impressed by the valour of the vanquished, treated them with marked clemency and tried to win them over to his side.

In 1737 Nadir once more was on the move with the object of taking Kandahar. After long preparations he came out of


146

Isfahan at the head of a large army, estimated at 80,000 men. At Kandahar he met stiff resistance and it was not until after a tight blockade of fully one year that he was able to take the city (March 1738).

The occupation of Kandahar brought Nadir Shah into clash with the Mughal Empire of India. After taking Kabul, then a part of the Mughal Empire, Nadir marched on India. The Mughal army came out to oppose his advance at Karnal, north of Delhi. The Indians were no match for the hardy and tough soldiers led by Nadir in person. It was all over in less than two hours. The Mughals were completely routed and had no alternative but to sue for peace (February 19, 1739).

Nadir, after a stay of a few days at the imperial capital, took possession of its treasures and jewels, including the celebrated peacock throne and then left for his native land.

On reaching Meshed he intended to make it the capital of his vast empire. He, however, did not live long to reap the fruits of his triumphs. In the spring of 1747 a conspiracy was formed and he was assassinated in his camp at Khabushan. Within a few years after his death, the mighty empire which he had created fell to pieces.


147

THE DURRANIS (Variously called Abdalis & Sadozais):
After the death of Nadir Shah, Ahmad Khan Abdali with his
contingent of 4,000 Afghans returned to Kandahar. There in
October, 1747, a tribal Jirga was held to consider the future of
the country, and to elect a king of their own. Everyone of the
tribal chiefs put forth his claim. So heated did the discussion
and dissensions become that a recourse to arms seemed imminent.
At this critical moment, Sabar, a respectable dervish, intervened
on behalf of Ahmad Khan. Making a wreath of sheaves of
wheat, he put it on Ahmad Khan's head and said, "May this
serve you as a crown". The choice was approved by all and
Ahmad Khan became the elected King of the Afghans.

Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747-1773): Ahmad Shah was
a chief of the Sadozai clan, a branch of the Abdalis. On his
accession he took the title of Dur-i-Durran (Pearl of the Age). So
this family has come to be known as Abdalis, Sadozais or
Durranis.

Ahmad Shah, though very young at this time (for he was
hardly twenty-five) proved himself to be a capable ruler. His
first object was to sccure the affection of his people and to wold
them into a strong nation. His popular manners, combined
with his courage, activity, vigilance and other martial virtues,
soon endeared him to all of his people, and he became the idol of
his nation who gave him the title of 'Baba' -Father of the
Nation.

Within a short space of a quarter of a century, he was not
only able to liberate Afghanistan from foreign yoke, but also
carried his victorious arms from Meshed to Kashmir, & Delhi,
and from the Oxus to the Arabian Sea.


148

Timur Shah (1773-1793): Ahmad Shah was succeeded
by his son, Timur, who lacked the energy and farsightedness of
his illustrious father. It is not possible for a successor of a great
king to rest upon his father's laurels and enjoy perfect tranquillity
without exerting himself.

So was the case with Timur. As soon as the grip of the
master hand was no more, numerous sources of danger cropped
up. Timur was incapable of dealing courageously with all these
difficulties. The result was that the chiefs gave him but nominal
homage and the greater part of his reign was spent in quelling
their uprisings. His shifting and vacillating policy and easy-
going temperament brought great loss to the kingdom founded by
Ahmad Shah the Great, and its real disintegration begins with
Timur Shah's reign. It was Timur Shah who changed the
capital of Afghanistan from Kandahar to Kabul.

Zaman Shah (1793-1800): After the death of Timur his
fifth son, Zaman, was able to occupy the throne with the help of
Sardar Payenda Khan, the influential chief of the Barakzais.
Zaman Shah, from the very beginning of his reign was beset with
innumerable difficulties, both external and internal. His elder
brothers, Hamayun, governor of Kandahar, and Mahmoud,
Governor of Herat, thinking themselves lawful heirs to the
throne, took up arms to contest for power.

Zaman Shah, after consolidating his position in Afghan-
istan, turned to India, with the object of turning out the British.
But there was too little security at home to ensure success abroad.

The British were greatly alarmed to learn of his plans.
They took prompt measures for the security of their Indian
territories, now threatened by Napoleon on one side and Zaman
on the other. Captain Malcolm was accordingly deputed as


149

Envoy to Persia to induce Fateh Ali Shah Qajar to bring pressure upon Zaman Shah, and divert his attention from his threatened invasion of India to the western border of Afghanistan. The Shah went a step further. He helped Mahmoud, the ex-governor of Herat, who was granted asylum in Persia, with men and money and encouraged him to advance on Kandahar. Mahmoud, assisted by Fateh Khan, son of Payenda Khan, took Kandahar after a siege of 42 days. Emboldened by these initial successes, they pushed on towards Kabul.

Zaman Shah, who was then in India and had proceeded as far as Lahore, hurried back to retrieve his losses. But Ahmad Khan Nurzai, commander of the Royal forces, who had some personal grievances against the King, decided to join the ranks of the insurgents. Owing to this treachery the cause of Zaman Shah became almost hopeless. All was given up for lost, and the King, leaving the battle-field in dismay, fled to Kabul precipitately. He could not stay even there long and left for Peshawar with a few faithful followers. Near Jigdalik he decided to pass the night at the fort of Ashiq Khan, one of his old adherents. Ashiq turned out to be a traitor. Detaining his honourable guest, he sent a swift messenger to Kabul to inform Mahmoud and Fateh Khan of Shah's confinement. Asad Khan, a younger brother of Fateh Khan, was immediately dispatched to secure Zaman Shah and his party. The King's eyes were pierced with a lancet then and there. He was then taken to Kabul and imprisoned at Bala Hissar, where he remained till the end of Mahmoud's reign (1803).

Shah Mahmoud (1800-1803) : Mahmoud was an incapable, selfish and indolent ruler. He took no interest in the welfare of his people ; rather he squandered the treasures accumulated by his father and grandfather, and left the entire


150
affairs of the State in the hands of his powerful and resourceful Vizir, Fateh Khan. The minister, too, had a rival in the person of Akram Khan Alizai. The rivalries and jealousies of these two influential chiefs gave great offense to the people. There were uprisings on all sides and the King's army could not cope with the situation. Some of the chiefs, who had personal grievances against the King or his ministers, invited Shah Shuja, a full brother of Zaman Shah, to Kabul. The intrigue was successful. Shuja rode into the capital triumphantly. Mahmoud, finding that all was over, sued for peace. His life and eyes were spared, but he was taken to the Bala Hissar and cast into prison.
Shah Shuja (1803—1809): The new King was incapable of restoring peace and prosperity in a country torn by internal dissensions. The chiefs had become too powerful and unruly, and the outlying provinces were trying to assert their independence. The Sikhs were encroaching upon Afghan territories from the east and the Persians were threatening from the west. The Shah could not conciliate the powerful Barakzai chief, Fateh Khan. This caused the general condition of the country, already on the verge of bankruptcy and ruin, to deteriorate still further.
Napoleon of France was at this time at the zenith of his power. In 1807 he and Alexander I of Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit. The two monarchs meditated a combined invasion of India. This once more aroused the British to efforts to recover their lost prestige at the Persian Court. They also planned to protect their Indian Empire by binding the western frontier states in a chain of friendly alliances. A mission, headed by Elphinstone, was sent to meet Shah Shuja


151

at Peshawar for the purpose of discussing ways and means of
mutual defence against the threatened invasion of Afghanistan
and India. The Mission was warmly received and resulted in
the conclusion of a treaty of friendship (June 7, 1809).

Hardly had the Mission left Peshawar when news was
received that Kabul had been occupied by Mahmoud and Fateh
Khan. The month of June had not come to a close before it
was evident that the Shah's cause was hopeless. After a short
encounter near Gandomak, Shah Shuja's forces were routed,
while he, turning off, withdrew beyond the border to await a
favourable opportunity.

The Rise of the Barakzais: Shah Shuja, after making
futile efforts to recover his throne, was at last imprisoned at
Peshawar and carried off to Kashmir. In 1812, however, he
was able to make good his escape. He came to Lahore hoping
to get the help of Ranjit Singh, ruler of the Panjab, in regaining
his lost throne. Contrary to his expectations, the Sikh ruler
treated him badly and robbed him of the famous diamond,
Koh-i-Noor. The fugitive monarch, after various vicissitudes,
ultimately took refuge under the British at Ludhiana.

The Barakzais were now dominant throughout the country.
This incited the jealousy of Kamran, Mahmoud's eldest son.
He began looking for an opportunity to bring ruin upon Fateh
Khan and his influential brothers. In 1816, a powerful Persian
army advanced on Herat. Haji Feroz-ud-Din, the Governor,
appealed to his brother, Mahmoud for help. Fateh Khan set
out in that direction. The Haji was made a prisoner and sent
to Kabul under a strong escort. Dost Mohammad, a younger
brother of Fateh Khan, was appointed to seize the treasures.
His intrusion into the princesses' quarters in search of the


152
treasures infuriated the sister of Kamran, wife of Prince Kasim, son of Haji Feroz-ud-Din, and she called upon her brother to avenge the insult.
Kamran, who had an outstanding grudge against the Vazir, did not fail to avail himself of the opportunity. Repairing to Herat under guise of leading reinforcement, he caught hold of Fateh Khan and immediately deprived him of his eyesight, while Dost Mohammad made good his escape to Kashmir.
Retribution immediately followed this outrage. The Vazir's brothers, some twenty in number, took up arms in every direction. The Shah asked the Vazir to write to his brothers to submit. He replied boldly that he was blind and had no control over them. Irritated and enraged by his answer, the Shah ordered the unfortunate minister, to whom he twice owed his crown, to be cut to pieces. Fateh Khan met his death heroically. He made no cry and offered no prayer for mercy, and died as he had lived-bold, dauntless and resolute. The end of the Vazir was also the death-knell of the Sadozai dynasty.
The cruel death of Fateh Khan aroused the vengeance of the powerful Barakzai brothers. The first to enter the field was Dost Mohammad. He took Peshawar and Kabul and drove the Shah and his son, Kamran, from all their possessions except Herat, where they managed to maintain a precarious footing for a few years. The remainder of Afghanistan was parcelled out among the Barakzai brothers.
In the confusion that followed, Afghanistan sufferred heavily. Balkh was seized upon by the Khan of Bokhara, the trans-Indus Afghan districts were occupied by the Sikhs, and the outlying provinces of Sindh and Baluchistan assumed independence. In the partition of Afghanistan, Ghanzi, Kabul


153

and Jalalabad fell to the lot of Dost Mohammad Khan (1826).
He thus became the most powerful of the Barakzai Sardars.
Five of his half-brothers jointly ruled Kandahar.

Dost Mohammad Khan or the Grand Amir (1826—
1839) : Dost Mohammad Khan is the founder of the Barakzai or
Mohammadzai dynasty, which is still in power. As soon as his
position was secure at Kabul, he made up his mind to recover
Peshawar. Dost Mohammad could not forget that Peshawar
was an integral part of Afghanistan and that the Sikhs had
occupied it during the confusion that followed the death of
Vazir Fateh Khan. He resolved to wrest it from the Sikhs
by force. Assuming the title of Amir-ul-Mominin, (the Leader of
the Faithful) he declared a religious war and called upon his
people to join in his expedition. At their head he advanced
upon Peshawar, but the shrewd Sikh leader, finding himself too
weak to meet him in open field, sowed treason and dissension
in the Amir's camp. The result was that the invading army
melted away and Peshawar was lost to the Amir.

In November 1837, Mohammad Shah of Persia laid siege
to Herat. The Russians, anxious to have the Persians com-
pensate themselves with Afghan territory for Russian conquests
of Persian territories in the Caucasus, supported the Persians.
The British, fearful that Persia was falling completely under
Russian influence, determined to enter into alliances with the
rulers of Herat, Kabul and Kandahar. With this view a
mission was sent to Kabul under Capt. Burnes. Dost Mohammad
Khan was not disinclined to welcome a power from which he
expected support in his attempts to recover Peshawar. But he
was unable to obtain from the envoy the assurances which he


154

hoped for. At the same time the appearance of a Russian agent, Capt. Vikovich, at Kabul alarmed the British and Burnes left Kabul empty-handed.

The failure of Burnes' mission gave the Governor-General of India, Lord Auckland, a pretext to invade Afghanistan, with the object of restoring Shah Shuja to the throne of Kabul. Thus the First Anglo-Afghan War began at the end of 1838 with the British invasion of the country. A British army under General Keane assembled at Ferozepur. Shah Shuja was supplied with the necessary funds to raise an army of his own. As the Sikhs did not allow the British to go through their country, it was decided that the army should march along the Sutlej down to the Indus and then via Sukkur and Shikarpur and through the Bolan Pass, advance on Kandahar. In April 1839, after suffering terrible privations and heavy losses amongst their transport animals from predatory attacks of Baluchs, Kakakrs and Achakzais, Keane's army reached Kandahar, and Shah Shuja was crowned in the mosque of Ahmad Shah.

On the 27th of June the forced moved northwards, and on the 21st of July, after a severe encounter, the citadel of Ghazni was carried by storm. In August, 1839, the British took Kabul and installed Shah Shuja on the throne. Dost Mohammad, finding his army thinned by treachery, fled across the Hindu Kush, and although hotly pursued, escaped to Balkh. A little later he was offered asylum by Nasrullah Khan of Bokhara, but later treacherously put in prison by him. How-ever, the Afghans did not take kindly to the occupation of their capital by a foreign force, nor would they tolerate being governed by a sovereign who was a mere puppet of the British. Shah Shuja was supported entirely by British bayonets.


155

Insurrections broke out in various quarters. As soon as the flames were stamped out in one place, they broke out afresh in another.

Dost Mohammad hearing the news of the insurrections and the bold stand of his people against the British, escaped from prison and returned to Afghanistan and joined the ranks of the patriots. Fierce battles, took place at Parwandarrah (now Jabalus-Seraj) and other parts of Kohistan in which the British sustained heavy losses (November 2, 1840). But soon after the battle, the Amir to the surprise of all, surrendered himself to the British at Kabul. He was then deported to India with all the members of his family.

Even after the deportation of Amir the situation did not improve. Constant outbreaks all over the country showed that the situation was growing rapidly worse. Appeals were sent to General Sale at Gandomak and General Nott at Kandahar to come to the rescue. Sale, finding that he had not sufficient transport, preferred to fall back on Jalalabad, and Nott could not advance beyond Ghazni. The British foces in Kabul, finding themselves abandoned and in a precarious position, concluded a humiliating treaty with Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammad Khan, on December 11, 1841, promising to quit Afghanistan without further delay and to set free Dost Mohammad. McNaughton, the British Political Officer, was not however, in a mood to carry out the terms of this agreement; instead he set about sowing dissension among the Afghan chiefs. The result was the assassination of McNaughton at the hands of Akbar Khan. A new treaty of withdrawal was made with the Afghan chiefs.

On January 6, 1842, the British force and camp-followers,


156

in all 16,500 men, marched out of Kabul, intending to go to Hindustan, in reality marching into the jaws of death. Bands of patriots swarmed around the line of their retreat. The British Generals lost their heads and the troops their morale. Women, children and many officers were surrendered as hostages to Akbar Khan. The rest struggled on in misery through snowstorms and constant hail of bullets. The retreat became a rout; the rout a massacre. Seven days later (on January 13) one solitary survivor, Dr. Brydon, half dead with wounds and exhaustion, staggered into Jalalabad to tell the story of the disaster to the astounded British garrison.

Lord Auckland, the man mainly responsible for this sad episode, laid down the reins of office and was succeeded by Lord Ellenborough. As soon as the new Governor-General arrived in India, he announced that the British Government would no longer imperil its armies, and with its armies, the Indian Empire. He determined on the immediate evacuation of Afghanistan without any attempt at reprisals or even the rescue of prisoners still in the hands of the Afghans. Nott was ordered to abondon Kandahar, while Pollock and Sale were instructed to withdraw to Peshawar. The Governor-General met the retreating troops with great pomp and show in a big camp at Ferozepore, decorated with triumphal arches. Dost Mohammad Khan was released. He hastily returned to his country, now without a ruler, for the ill-fated Shah Shuja was murdered by his own subjects a few days after the British garrison abandoned the capital.

Thus ended the final phase of the First Afghan War. It cost the British 20,000 lives and the waste of more than £20,000,000. Nearly all British historians agree that the war had been an unjust one. Typical is this observation, "We plunged into a most


157

unrighteous war beyond the boundaries of India, shedding the
blood, and interfering with the independence of a people with
whom we had not a pretext of quarrel.......The terrible Afghan
expedition made an indelible impression on the minds of the
Afghans. It is certainly true that so far as the military honour
and reputation of England is concerned, these were speedily
reasserted and vindicated, but it was impossible for the Indian
Government to win the confidence of the Afghans".

Dost Mohammad reigned till 1863, and during these twenty
years he was able to establish peace throughout the country. He
died at Herat, thirteen days after the capture of the city, and
was succeeded by his third son, Sher Ali Khan.

Amir Sher Ali Khan: His elder brothers, Afzal Khan
and Azam Khan, rose against him and for five years the Amir
led a life of extraordinary vicissitude—now an outcast flying for
his life, now a ruler in a solitary outlying province, now the de
facto ruler of the greater part of the country. At last, in 1868,
he was able to establish his authority throughout Afghanistan.

The British, meanwhile, in pursuance of their Forward
Policy, were moving slowly ahead into the tribal area bordering
Afghanistan. Advocates of this policy wished to see Afghanistan
absorbed within the British Indian Empire. In 1874, the For-
ward Policy gained the upper hand, and a series of negotiations
with Sher Ali Khan ensued during the following years. Finally,
when the British saw that they could not achieve their object by
peaceful means, they resorted to force and declared war on the
Amir. Late in 1878, the British once more invaded Afghanistan.
This was the beginning of the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878-
1881).


158

The Second Afghan War: A large force was mobilized for the invasion of Afghanistan. On November 21, 1878, the three great passes leading into Afghanistan were entered by the British armies. Sir Samuel Browne threatened the Khyber, and Major-General Roberts marched up the Kurram Valley. The southernmost invading force under General Stewart marched from Quetta through the Bolan Pass upon Kandahar. The forces met stiff resistance on all fronts, but by the end of December, Browne had reached Jalalabad, Roberts fought his way through the Shuttargardan Pass, and in January Stewart entered Kandahar. Sher Ali, leaving his son Yakoub Khan, as regent in Kabul, went to Mazar-i-Sharif, hoping to get help from the Russians. But the Russians advised him to make his peace with the British. The Amir, worn out by physical diseases and mental worries, died at Mazar on February 21, 1879.

The Treaty of Gandomak: By the Treaty of Gandomak (May 26) Yakoub Khan agreed to receive a permanent British Embassy with a suitable escort at Kabul; to conduct his foreign relations with other States in accordance with the advice and wishes of the British government; and to allow such rectification of the frontier as was demanded by the advocates of the Forward Policy. In return, the Amir was promised help against external aggression.

The news of the conclusion of peace was received with much satisfaction in England, and the Government congratulated itself and the country on the attainment of a "Scientific Frontier". Prime Minister Beaconsfield wrote to the Viceroy: "Greatly owing to your energy and foresight we have secured a scientific frontier for our Indian Empire". Sir John Lawrence's warnings were ignored. The advocates of the Forward Policy triumphed;


159

the Indian frontier was to rest not upon the Indus but upon the command of the passes.

The triumph was short-lived. The Indian Government once more, by painful experience, had to learn the lesson that the moment any ruler of Afghanistan is supported by any foreign power, he forfeits all the respect and allegiance of his fellow countrymen. How blind the Viceroy was to the real state of affairs may be seen from his statement that "the Afghans will like and respect us all the more for the thrashing we have given Sher Ali". A month after these words were written, the clouds were ominously gathering and the fate of Burnes and McNaughten awaited Sir Louis Cavagnari, who had entered Kabul as British Resident on July 24, 1879. On September 2, Cavagnari sent a telegram to the Viceroy containing the words: "All well". The next day the envoy and the whole of his escort were murderd in the Bala-Hissar. The jubilation with which Beaconsfield and Lytton regarded their handiwork was rudely disturbed. "The web of policy", wrote the Viceroy, "so carefully and patiently woven, had been rudely shattered". British forces were once again in motion and before the close of October, General Roberts was able to occupy Kabul. Yakoub Khan abdicated and was sent to India, where he resided until his death in 1923.

Roberts' position in Kabul was far from secure. The Afghan People had once again risen in arms against the foreign invaders, led by different tribal leaders. In winter, there was fierce fighting in and around Kabul, and it was with great difficulty that Roberts kept his communications with India open. Indeed, for ten days, December 14 to 24, he was forced to abandon Kabul and the Bala-Hissar, and retire within the defences of Sherpur where he was besieged by 100,000 nationalist forces. To hold Afghanistan permanently was now out of the question. Lord


Ali Abad Medical College, Science Faculty and the tomb of Sayed
Jamal-ud-Din Afghani.


The central office of the Afghan Karakul Company, Kabul.


160

Lytton, therefore, deemed it advisable to break up the country
into small principalities governed by British puppets. Kandahar
was promised to Vali Sher Ali, a Barakzai of Kandahar. No
special arrangements were necessary for Herat, where Ayoub
Khan, full brother of Yakoub Khan, still maintained himself
in power. It was decided to retain Kabul under direct British
administration.
Opportunely, there now appeared upon the scene the strong
man so badly needed. It was a grandson of Dost Mohammad,
Abdur Rahman. Since 1868, he had lived in banishment beyond
the Oxus, under Russian protection. He no sooner reappeared
than the patriots rallied around him. At this time Lord Lytton
resigned his office and the Conservative Government suffered a
severe defeat in the general elections. Gladstone succeeded Lord
Beaconsfield as Prime Minister and Lord Ripon was sent out as
Viceroy to bring about a peaceful settlement of the Afghan
question. Abdur Rahman Khan was finally recognized as Amir
of Kabul and Great Britain bound herself not to require the
admission of an English Resident anywhere in Afghanistan.
Abdur Rahman succeeded to a much reduced kingdom. Herat
was under the control of Ayoub Khan, while Kandahar was
ruled by Vali Sher Ali, a British puppet.
The Battle of Maiwand: Ayoub Khan, declaring a
religious war, came out of Herat with the intention of driving
the British out of Afghanistan. At Maiwand, on the 27th of
July, 1880, he met and defeated a British force led by General
Burrows, which had been sent to check his advance. This was
as the Britith themselves have admitted, "One of the most
notable victories ever gained by oriental troops in conflict with a
European army". The British had 914 men killed and were
driven back in full retreat.


161

Ayoub Khan, after the victory, marched on to invest Kandahar. On receiving the news, the British evacuated Kabul, and Roberts with 10,000 picked men started for Kandahar. On 31st August, Ayoub Khan was attacked and defeated at Baba Wali.

The course of events had made it quite clear that the partition of Afghanistan, as already planned, was not possible and that Vali Sher Ali could not maintain himself at Kandahar. The Government of India, therefore, was obliged to recognise the Kandahar province as an integral Part of Abdur Rahman's Kingdom. The city was finally evacuated and formally made over to a governor deputed from Kabul in April, 1881.

For a time Abdur Rahman Khan seemed in imminent danger of losing not only Kandahar but Kabul as well. Ayoub Khan marched again from Herat, occupied Kandahar and held it for several months. Abdur Rahman set out from Kabul to offer him battle. Few thought that he could prevail, but he won a complete victory near Kandahar. Ayoub Khan fled into exile to Persia. Herat as well as Kandahar fell to the victor.

The Amir with great energy and determination then set about establishing peace and a strong central government in Afghanistan. In this he succeeded marvellously. On November 12, 1893, the Amir was forced under threat of war to relinquish his rights over the border tribes and to accept a new line of demarcation, the so-called "Durand Line".

Amir Abdur Rahman Khan died in October 1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Habibullah Khan, who ruled from 1901 to 1919.

Amir Habibullah Khan : Amir Habibullah Khan was an enlightened monarch. He laid the foundation of Habibia College and followed an "Open door" policy. Roads were constructed


162

and steps were taken to introduce machinery and other modern
conveniences, such as hydro-electricity and water pipes into
Afghanistan. A weekly paper, Sirajul Akhbar, was started, and
it was entrusted to the well-known Afghan writer, Mahmud-i-
Tarzi. This paper infused a new life throughout the country
and had a great part in the national awakening. European
games, including football, hockey, cricket, tennis and badminton
were also encouraged and the Amir personally took part in some
of them, distributing prizes among the winners.

In 1907, the Amir visited India at the invitation of the
British Indian Government. He observed strict neutrality in
World War I. A German-Turkish Mission reached Kabul in
October, 1915, to try to induce the Amir to declare a holy war
against the British, but the Amir was able to stick to his neutral-
ity throughout the War. In February 1919, feeling that the
time had come when he might claim the reward of his steadfast-
ness during the war, and to vindicate his policy before his people,
he wrote to the Viceroy, demanding written recognition by the
Peace Conference of Afghanistan's "absolute liberty, freedom
of action and perpetual independence". But on the night of the
20th of February, he was assassinated in his shooting camp at
Kala-gosh in the Laghman Valley. His younger brother, Sardar
Nasrulla, Khan, who was then at Jalalabad, proclaimed himself
King. Meanwhile in Kabul, Sardar Amanullah Khan, the
third son of the Amir, took possession of the citadel. On the
29th of February he proclaimed himself King of Afghanistan in
the presence of all civil and military officials in Kabul. The
army in Jalalabad rallied around the cause of Amanullah and
forced Nasrullah Khan, to abdicate.

King Amanullah : Amanullah's first act after accession
was to proclaim the independence of Afghanistan both in


163
external and internal affairs. On March 3, 1919, he informed the Viceroy of his accession, and at the same time asked for a revision of treaties. "Our independent and free Government" he wrote, "considers itself ready, at every time and season, to conclude such agreements and treaties with the British Government as may be useful and serviceable to our Government and yours".
On receiving an unencouraging answer from the Viceroy, Amanullah sent his forces to the eastern and southern borders. and adopted every precautionary measure. The strength of the British and Indian forces stationed north of the Indus at this juncture aggregated 340,000 men and 185,000 animals, besides airplanes, mechanized units and all means of modern warfare. Afghanistan at this time was divided into ten military districts. Its effectives were nominally 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry and 4,000 artillerymen. They were badly trained and poorly equipped with obsolete guns and rifles.
The War of Independence or the Third Anglo-Afghan War :
On May 3, shots were exchanged between the British force and Afghan soldiers at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, and from this hostilities began on all three fronts.
This war, generally known as the Afghan War of Independence lasted for nearly a month. The operations on the eastern front were not successful and the British captured the frontier post of Dakka, while the advance of the Afghan forces under the leadership of general Nadir Khan (late king Nadir Shah) into the Kurram Valley and Waziristan and his victory at Thal and the subsequent rising of the border tribes against the British scored for Afghanistan a decisive victory. An armistice was signed by


164

which the British recognized the independence of Afghanistan.
At the invitation of the British Government a delegation, under
the leadership of Mahmud Tarzi (Foreign Minister), was sent to
India to negotiate for peace and a treaty of friendship. This
treaty was finally ratified in Kabul in 1922. Meanwhile Aman-
ullah succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations for
Afghanistan with the outside world. Russia recognized the
independent Government of the country and was soon followed
by Afghanistan's other neighbours, later to be joined by the
countries of Europe.

Having achieved this goal, Amanullah started to introduce
reforms inside the country and to prepare his people to meet
requirements of a modern international life, not only with the
countries if Asia, but also with the Western World. This move-
ment in Afghanistan resulted in invitations being extended to the
King to visit several European countries. By the time Amanullah
returned from Europe, the impression of all he had seen there
had quite obliterated his preconceived ideas and made him
eager to introduce the western way of life with revolutionary
swiftness into his own country. Afghanistan, in spite of some
political designs orginating outside the country, was once more
becoming a strong power in Central Asia.

Although the King's reforms met with opposition from a
certain group of reactionaries who were rigidly and conserva-
tively against the modernization of the country, this opposition
was confined to one section of the population only which, though
vociferous, was not strong enough to maintain its stand. The
fierce civil war which broke out in the country and later resulted
in the abdication of King Amanullah and his departure from
the country had its real cause not, as the misrepresentations of
some writers have tried to prove, in the reluctance of the Afghan


165
people to see their country develop along modern lines, but
rather in the political manœuvring of ouside elements.
During the ensuing period of almost one full year of civil
wars the throne of Kabul witnessed one of the most dramatic
events of all time when a highwayman named Habibullah seized
the power and declared himself King. Thus, among other
destructive results of the civil wars, most of Afghanistan’s
political leaders were killed, banished or imprisoned.
At this time Sardar Mohammad Nadir was in Paris where
he had been sent as Afghan Minister some time after his promo-
tion to the rank of Marshal and Minister of War in the first
Cabinet of independent Afghanistan. Hearing the news from
home, he left France and returned in haste to Afghanistan,
where the people found in him the leader they needed to deliver
the country from its miserable domination by the bandit-king.
On 25th January, 1929, Sardar Mohammad Nadir Khan,
accompanied by his brothers, Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan
and Sardar Shah Wali Khan, left for Afghanistan. Sardar
Shah Mahmoud Khan, their younger brother, who was then
in Kabul, went to meet them at the Afghan border. The three
had a long talk, wherein Sardar Shah Mahmoud give all details
of the revolt, with its attendant horrors.
From March until October 1929, the struggle for deliver-
ance continued, the brothers playing an important part in this
drama. Routed again and again, they ever rose with fresh
hearts from the disaster, till at last on October 16, their efforts
were crowned with success. The bandit-king was driven out
of the capital, and peace was restored. The warm welcome
which Sardar Mohammad Nadir Khan received at Kabul was
never excelled by that accorded to a triumphant Cæsar.
Thousands of people from all parts of the country had lined


166

both sides of the route. They went wild with enthusiasm and
delight at the sight of their deliverer. Sardar Mohammad Nadir
Khan was obviously moved by the extraordinary warmth of
the greetings and kept his hand raised in continuous salute,
bowing to each side as he rode through the streets of Kabul.

In a Jirga held at Salamkhana, Sardar Mohammad Nadir
Khan was unanimously elected King.

King Mohammad Nadir Shah: King Mohammad Nadir
Shah, the second son of Sardar Mohammad Yousuf Khan was
born on April 9, 1883. In him were united the two royal houses
of Mohammadzais and Sadozais. On his father's side he was the
great grandson of Sardar Sultan Mohammad Khan, brother of
Amir Dost Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Mohammadzai
dynasty, and from his mother's side he descended from Ahmad
Shah Abdali (1747-73), founder of modern Afghanistan.

During the reign of Amir Habibullah Khan, Sardar
Mohammad Nadir Khan and the members of his family, all
men of great ability and exceptional administrative capacity,
did their best for the advancement of the country. The family
continued to serve Afghanistan during the early days of
Amanullah Khan, and never willingly withdrew its co-operation.
It was due to their heroic actions in the Third Anglo-Afghan
War that the country gained its independence.

The first aim of the King upon his succession was to restore
peace and order. At the age of 47, he embarked on a task
that might have daunted the bravest and wisest of diplomats.
Probably nowhere in history do we find a sovereign so financially
handicapped at the start. It was probably the first case of a
national exchequer being absolutely bankrupt, unlined even
with a single silver coin. In spite of all these obstacles, King
Nadir Shah applied himself at once to the task that lay before


167

him, and energetically took in hand the development and
reform—in fact, one may say the foundation anew of Afghanistan.
The constitutional reforms introduced by the King must be
regarded as his most praiseworthy act, a measure by which he
parted with his autocratic powers, and officially transferred them
to the representatives of the people. The Afghan Government,
until the reign of King Nadir Shah, was autocratic. The King
was the fountain-head of all power, and all orders relating to
the administration of the State emanated from him. The
Ministers were practically the lieutenants of the king and in
his name wielded the full authority of the government. Under
King Nadir Shah, however, the Government gave way to con-
stitutionalism. Two Houses of Parliament, a House of
Representatives and a House of Elders were set up to look
after the affairs of the country and to frame laws.

Unfortunately, the reign of this benign and wise King was
cut short by his assassination on November 8, 1933.

King Mohammad Zahir Shah:

H.M. King Mohammad Zahir Shah, the only surviving
son of the late King Mohammad Nadir Shah, peacefully suc-
ceeded his father on the throne, with the title of "Almutawakkal-
Allallah" (He who puts his trust in the Lord).

His Majesty was born in Kabul on Monday, October 15,
1914, so he was only 19 when he ascended the throne. He is
the first Afghan King who has been educated in a European
country. On the completion of his elementary education, he
accompanied his illustrious father to France in 1924 and stayed
there for six years. He studied at Lycee Janson de Sailly and
then at Lycee Michelet and the College de Montpellier.

Returning to Afghanistan in 1930, he attended the


168

Officers' Military Course, where he gave sufficient proof of his great mental powers. He was asked to work in different departments of public affairs, where he soon won the esteem and affection of those who came in contact with him. During the absence of Sardar Shah Mahmoud Khan, he officiated as the Minister of Defence, and then was asked to head the Ministry of Education, which post he successfully held until the tragic death of his father.

On the very day of his accession, the King declared that he would scrupulously follow in the footsteps of his father and fulfil his programme. He takes a keen interest in every public affair and has never relinquished his efforts to improve the condition of his subjects, to diffuse knowledge, to promote agriculture and develop the natural resources of the country.

Thanks to the ability and high principles, and the administrative experience of his uncles and cousins, a slow but steady progress is being made in every direction. The present government, under the direction of Sardar Mohammad Daoud, the Prime Minister*, is working on vast plans for the educational, industrial and agricultural development of the country, and public welfare generally. A Five Year Plan envisages the construction of better roads, better means of transportation and communication and the development of mines, industry, education and agriculture. To implement these extensive projects, the Government has availed itself of the technical and financial assistance of foreign organizations and institutions as well.

*Since 1929, Afghanistan has had three Prime Ministers:—
(1) H.R.H. Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan, 1929 to 1946
(2) H.R.H. Sardar Shah Mahmoud Khan, 1946 to 1953
(3) H.R.H. Sardar Mohammad Daoud, from 1953


169

TABLES OF REIGNING FAMILIES SINCE
THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

(1) The Hotakis :
Mir Vais Khan, King of Kandahar ... 1709—1715
Mir Abdul Aziz, Mir Vais Khan's brother,
King of Kandahar ... 1715—1716
Mir Mahmoud, Mir Vais Khan's son, King of
Kandahar and Persia ... 1716—1725
Mir Ashraf, son of Mir Abdul Aziz, King of
Persia ... 1725—1730
Mir Hussain, son of Mir Vais Khan, King of
Kandahar ... 1725—1738

(2) The Durranis (Sadozais or Abdalis) :
Ahmad Shah ... 1747—1773
Timur Shah, son of Ahmad Shah ... 1773—1793
Zaman Shah, son of Timur Shah ... 1793—1800
Mahmoud, son of Timur Shah ... 1800—1803
Shuja, son of Timur Shah ... 1803—1809
Mahmoud (again) ... 1809—1818
Civil War ... 1818—1826

(3) A. The Mohammadzais (or Barakzais).
(Dost Mohammad's Family)
Amir Dost Mohammad Khan ... 1826—1839
Shah Shuja Sadozai, placed on the throne by
the British ... 1839—1842
Anarchy ... 1842—1843
Dost Mohammad Khan (again) ... 1843—1863
Sher Ali Khan, son of Dost Mohammad ... 1863—1866


Afzal Khan, son of Dost Mohammad	... 1866—1867
Azam Khan, son of Dost Mohammad	... 1867—1868
Sher Ali Khan (again)	... 1868—1879
Yakoub Khan, son of Sher Ali	... 1879—1879
Abdur Rahman, son of Afzal Khan	... 1880—1901
Habibullah Khan, son of Abdur Rahman	... 1901—1919
Amanullah Khan, son of Habibullah	... 1919—1929

(3) B. The Mohammadzais
(Sultan Mohammad Khan’s Family) :
The Late King Mohammad Nadir Shah
Shahid	... 1929—1933
H.M. King Mohammad Zahir Shah	... 1933—


171

PART SIX

Information for Visitors

Passport & Visas :—Every passenger intending to visit Afghanistan must be in possession of a valid passport issued by his own government and properly endorsed by one of the Afghan diplomatic representatives stationed abroad. It is advisable to apply for an Afghan visa some time in advance. The fee charged for such visas is exactly the same as levied by the government of his own country for endorsing a similar Afghan passport.

Visitors are required to show their passports at all frontier posts of the country, both on their arrival and departure. On arrival in one of the cities they should at once proceed to the Police Station to get their names registered and obtain Residential Permits (Waraqa-i-Aqamat). If a visitor whose passport has been endorsed wishes to extend the length of his stay in the country, or to set up in any business or profession, he must ask for the permission of the Afghan Government. A foreign visitor is not at liberty to enter any employment, paid or unpaid, without such permission. If a passport is lost after entering the country, the visitor must inform the police immediately. Prior to departure from Afghanistan, an exit visa must be obtained from the office issuing Residential Permits.

Customs :—The personal baggage and other belongings of all persons arriving in Afghanistan, whether in transit or otherwise, are subject to Customs examination. The responsibility for opening, unpacking, and repacking the packages rests with the passenger or his agent. All articles, whether they have been worn or used or not, and however small the quantity may be, must be declared to the Custom Officers. Failure to make a


172

proper declaration, or an attempt to conceal an article, may involve heavy penalties, including forfeiture of the goods. Import duty will not normally be charged on personal effects which have been in the possession and use of the visitor for a considerable time. The importation of certian goods, e. g., dangerous drugs, poisons, opium, morphine, cocaine, liquors and other intoxicants and anything injurious for human health, is strictly prohibited. No prohibited article, however small the quantity, will be permitted to be imported. Similarly, the import of such books, newspapers, printed or written articles, nude or immoral pictures, photographs and postcards that may be the cause of unrest and disturbance in the country or against the accepted dictates of Islam and approved morals of the people, is strictly prohibited. Merchandise, or any other goods other than bona-fide private effects, must not be imported as passengers' goods.

The export of many articles, such as (1) livestock—horses, sheep, camels, cows, etc., (2) gold or silver and precious stones, (3) all kinds of antiques, and (4) foodstuffs (cereals) is strictly prohibited.

As this does not exhaust the list, it is advisable that before arrival or depature from Afghanistan the visitor make perfectly sure that he does not take with him anything which is prohibited. In the first case he should consult the Afghan Trade Agents stationed abroad, and in the second he should approach the Ministry of Trade & Commerce.

For more detailed information on Customs Regulations application should be made to the above Ministry.

Currency Regulations:—Travellers entering Afghanistan may bring in:—
(a) Currency notes to the value of 500 Afghanis. Any note in excess of this sum should be shown at the frontier


173

and certified. They should take particular care to state
exactly the amounts of currency in their possession;
false declaration may lead to heavy penalties.
(b) Traveller's cheques, letters of credit, etc., in any cur-
rency and up to any amount.

Travellers leaving Afghanistan may take out :—
(a) Not more than 500 Afghanis in notes.
(b) The equivalent of 500 Afghanis in foreign currency,
unless he produces the required certificate from the
authorities concerned. If travellers who are about to
leave Afganistan have excess amounts of currency or
are in any doubt as to the amounts they will be al-
lowed to take with them, they are advised to consult
D' Afghanistan Bank.

Warning :—In their own interest travellers should make
sure that they do not arrive at the place of entry or departure
with excess currency, since the excess cannot be deposited with
the Customs Officer, but will be taken from the traveller and is
not likely to be refunded.

When to Travel :—Everyone who intends visiting Afghan-
istan should first seek information as to the best time of the year
to spend in the country, and what arrangements to make. It
is rather difficult to say which season to choose. If a stay of
five or six months is to be made, June is the best season for the
journey. If he wants to stay for a month or two, he had better
visit the country during autumn, which is the fruit season.
Generally speaking, spring, summer, and autumn are the times
to visit Afghanistan, and it is hard to say which one is the best.
Spring commences towards the end of March, officially on the
first of Hamal (21st March), but April and even the first few


174

days of May can be wet and cold. May and early June are delightful, but towards the end of June the valleys get rather warm, and it is well then to move higher into the hills. Spring gives you the new blossoms and the low snow, which enhances the landscape so much; but autumn gives the wonderful glory of changing leaf, with a background of newly fallen snow on the neighbouring hills. Even winter has its own charms, specially for those who are fond of skiing and skating.
Since the country is composed of lowlands and highlands, one may follow the climate of one's choice simply by going higher as the summer advances, and then gradually descending as do the shepherds and their flocks, following the melting snow upwards, until in the autumn the new snow drives them down again. It is, fascinating thus to follow spring from the valleys into hills, to be always level with the first new blossoms, until at last, you come up to the passess, the winter ever clearing before you, and a rich carpet of mountain flowers ever about your feet—wild flowers that have gone from the places where you camped only a fortnight earlier.

Transportation and Communications:
At present there are no railways and navigable waterways in Afghanistan. There are about 5,000 miles of motorable roads, but these are inadequate to meet the growing needs of the country. The burden of transportation falls upon motors, lorries, trucks and pack animals.
There is a regular Postal Service throughout the country and even up to Peshawar and New Chaman. A limited number of passengers can travel by these buses. Taxis are also available. The Government of Afghanistan has recently established a Department of Civil Aviation—the Aryana Airlines—providing a passenger and air mail service between the capital and a number of


175

provincial towns, as well as Bahrein, Beirut, Tehran and New Delhi and Karachi. Besides, there are some foreign air lines which come at regular intervals to Kabul and Kandahar. The Indian Airlines Corporation operates a weekly flight from New Delhi to Kabul. The Iranian Airways operates a weekly service between Kabul and Tehran. Pakistan International Airlines operate twice between Kabul and Karachi.

The Government of Afghanistan is interested in establishing an international airport at Kandahar, which lies at the cross-roads between the East and West. The Royal Afghan-United States project to develop civil aviation in this country will bring nearly fifteen million dollars worth of technical aid, airplanes, equipment, and airfield construction at Kandahar and five or more other points. The following benefits are envisaged from this project:

(1) A national system of air transport.
(2) An international transit-stop at Kandahar, shortening world travel time by at least two hours.
(3) The foundation for a new tourist industry.
(4) Careers for hundreds of Afghans in aviation.
(5) New export markets for Afghan products.

Why to Travel :—
Afghanistan has been termed by some writers the "Switzerland of Asia". It has for ages past attracted those seeking a resort which, while, affording every variety of pleasure and sport, abounds in the sublime beauties of nature. Everything that can make life enjoyable to different tastes and interests is provided here in an ideal and bracing climate. The poet will find inspiration and the artist undreamed beauties of colour and scenery for his brush. For the sportsman there is a large variety


The famous Shrine of Mazar-i-Sharif supposed to be the last resting place of
Hazrat Ali, the fourth Caliph and son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammed.


A flute player and a keen listener.


176

of big and small game, and for the angler there are streams abounding in fish and trout.

Afghanistan is very important from the point of archæology. For students of ancient history, there is much to be seen in the remains of Balkh, Bamian, Hadda, and Bagram souvenirs of the palmy days of the Græco-Budhist civilization. Of these, Bamian is the most interesting of all. Here the visitor can examine the colossal idols carved on the hillsides. The French Archæological Mission in Afghanistan, during the last three decades, has done some excellent work and has been able to discover some Buddhist, Indo-Hellenic, Græco-Buddhic and Brahmanic temples, coins, idols, and paintings, which vie with the remarkable discoveries of the same kind in India and Pakistan. Numerous specimens of fine art now decorate the Kabul Museum. These discoveries are of the first order and have aroused great interest in Afghanistan as well as in foreign countries.

Afghanistan is also a promising field of investigation for the student of comparative philology, who may here hope to come across the last of the little known and dying Indo-European languages, which are spoken in some of the mountain fastnesses even to this day. Here he can also conduct research in the very ancient Aryan languages, which are still preserved to a considerable extent in their original form and purity by many of the isolated hill-tribes, and the study of which might throw some light on the general history of the Indo-European languages.

Clothing:—If the visitor intends to visit the country during summer, clothing of medium thickness will do. If it is winter, he must have sufficient woollen clothes with him. Besides, it is advisable to have a fine pair of tinted glasses to prevent the dazzling light of snow from harming the eyes, a good


177

overcoat, a waterproof sheet for bedding, and a pair of good gloves and rubber boots.

Rates, Prices and Wages :—
It is not easy to dogmatize on the subject of prices, which are subject to market fluctuations, and what is now written may be out of date in a couple of months. Generally speaking, Afghanistan is less expensive than most of the neighbouring countries; the fruit of the country especially is a boon to the tourist. All kinds of fine fruits, such as apples, pomegranates, peaches, grapes, pears, melons, etc., are to be had at extremely low prices.

Rent :—For a six-room house in a nice locality of the capital the rent is usually 3,000 to 4,000 Afghanis per month. Servants' wages per month from 500 to 700 Afghanis plus food. Cook's wages per month from 600 to 800 Afghanis plus food.

Fares :—
Cars : about 5 Afghanis per mile.
Postal Service Bus Seat : Nearly 40 Afghanis per 100 miles.

Where to stay :
In addition to private hotels, serais and tea-houses, there are well-kept Government owned Rest Houses in all the important cities, towns and at various stages along the motor roads. The chief Government Rest Houses are located at the following places :
Jalalabad, Sarobi, Ghazni, Mukur, Bamian, Doab-i-Mekh-i-Zarin, Mazar-i-Sharif, Pul-i-Khumri, Kalat-i-Ghilzai, Kandahar, Girishk, Farah, Herat, Khanabad, Maimanah, Deh-Nao, and Bala-Murghab. Kabul has a fine up-to-date hotel, called L'Hôtel de Kabul, where both eastern and western dishes are served.


178

PART SEVEN

Journeys Through Afghanistan

Routes to Afghanistan : There are two important routes
for vehicles from the east into Afghanistan : (1) From Peshawar
to Kabul via the Khyber Pass, and (2) from Chaman to
Kandahar.

(1) From Peshawar to Kabul via Khyber, Jalalabad and
the Lataband Pass is a distance of 181 miles. It is the most
commonly used route. Under normal conditions, the journey can
easily be accomplished by car in a day, while by lorry or bus it
usually takes a day and a half. The halt at night is made at
one of the Rest Houses en route, either at Jalalabad or at Sarobi.
During winter it is better to stay at Jalalabad which has a milder
climate, while in summer Sarobi is better.

Peshawar, the first starting point, is a big frontier town,
lying on the North-Western Railway, at an elevation of 1,170
feet above sea-level. Regular Afghan mail buses are available
for this journey three times a week. They start early in the
morning from the Afghan Buildings (Pashtunkot) in Kissakhani
Bazaar, Peshawar City. It is better to get seats booked a few
days in advance to avoid disappointment. Seats can also be
arranged for telegraphically or by sending money orders in
advance.

Peshawar to the Afghan Border (distance 34½ miles) : The
road is level for the first nine or ten miles. At Jamrud (nine
miles from Peshawar) lying at the gate of the time-honoured
Khyber Pass, the traveller has to stop to comply with the
customs regulations. He has to submit his luggage to a thorough
scrutiny. Prohibited articles are held up by the authorities. A
toll of Re. 1/- per head is charged adults.


179

Two miles ahead the Khyber Pass begins, and there is an ascent through a narrow and difficult gorge, which at some places narrows to 150 yards, with steep and precipitious cliffs overhanging on either side. After Ali Masjid, the valley widens a little, but the upward trend of the road continues until Landi-Kotal, (3,370 feet) is reached. The whole of this distance presents a zig zag course between two series of barren mountains running roughly parallel to each other. From Landi-Kotal onwards a winding steep slope begins, which ends at Landi Khana. Here the visitor has to present his passport personally to the border officer.

The Afghan frontier post facing Landi Khana is Torkham, half a mile ahead. Here passports are examined by an Afghan official called Mamoor-i-Passport. After traversing seven miles of level road, encompassed by rocky hills, Dakka is reached. Here the visitor has to stop to get his passport checked by the Afghan Border Officer (Sarhad-Dar). After going through these formalities the visitor leaves for Jalalabad. Dakka to Jalalabad—40 miles. There is on leaving Dakka nothing to arrest the attention until Jalalabad is reached. Except for the Speen Ghar Range on the left at a distance of some 20 miles to relieve the monotony, the landscape is mostly barren and uninspiring.

The road lies nearly parallel to the Kabul River, between two ranges of mountains, which, running east to west, enclose between them a region about 20 miles wide from north to south. This intermediate country is by no means a valley, as it is divided into a series of small plains by crossing ranges of small hills. The plains are nearly barren and quite stony. It is only at the foot of the hills and along the banks of the river that fertile patches are to be seen.


180

Jalalabad : (Height 1,950 ft., population 35,000) Jalalabad stands nearly in the centre of a plain which extends from east to west about 20 miles, with a breadth at its widest part from 10 to 12 miles. The cultivated portion is often intersected by water-cuts. The northern portion bordering the Kabul River is extremely swampy and unhealthy. The river here is broad, rapid and clear, having a breadth (during October) of more than a hundred yards. Its banks are low and far apart.

Jalalabad, the provincial capital, of Nangrahar is 98 miles from Kabul. This place makes an excellent resort in winter when its climate is most cheering. The old town of Jalalabad is in no way remarkable, but the new city is well-laid out. On the road to Kabul, there are some beautiful bungalows and palaces, surrounded by pleasant gardens, reaching to the banks of the river, which in winter are a joy to the visitors. There is a Rest House in an attractive locality on the Kabul road.

Places of interest in the neighbourhood : Many places of historical interest and natural beauty, within easy reach of Jalalabad, may be visited. Of these the first is Hadda, which lies 5 miles south of the city. It is very rich in historic reminders of an eventful past, and has played an important rôle in the annals of the country. The well-known school of sculpture, known by the name of Gandhara School had, undoubtedly, its centre at Hadda, where its most beautiful specimens have been discovered. Hadda is also the last resting place of a well-known Afghan divine, Akhundzada Mir Najmuddin, who took a prominent part in the tribal wars against the British at the close of the nineteenth century A.D.

The whole plain of Jalalabad is littered with the ruins of the Buddhist age, foremost among these being caves, monastries,


181

and stupas. About a dozen of these stupas, built probably in the later part of the Kushan period, are still to be seen, though partly damaged.

Another place of interest is Nimla, a beautiful Mughal garden planted with cypress trees of great size and beauty. It lies 26 miles west of Jalalabad, on the old road leading to Kabul, via Jigdalik Pass. From Nimla one can see the dense forests on the slopes of the Speen Ghar. Here lie some of the fine hill-stations of the Nangrahar Province, such as Kaja, Mamakhel, Khugyani, etc. Gandomak, 8 miles west of Nimla, is the place where in 1879 Amir Yakoub Khan was forced to sign an agreement with the British, whereby he agreed to conduct his relations with Foreign States "in accordance with the advice and wishes of the British Government."

Forty-eight miles west of Jalalabad, on the same old route, lies the Jigdalik Pass—so famous in Afghan history. It was here that the remnants of the British Occupation Army, in their retreat from Kabul during the First Afghan War, made a last stand against the Afghans, and were all cut to pieces (January 13, 1842).

Jalalabad to Kabul (Distance 98 miles): The new road goes along the Kabul River, and after passing Daroonta, where the river is spanned by a beautiful suspension bridge, takes to the left and runs along the foot of a barren hill. The fertile valley of Laghman lies to the right, flanked on two sides, north and west, by snowcapped mountains.

From Daroonta (9 miles west of Jalalabad) a road leads across the bridge to Laghman, and another runs to the Kunar Valley, beyond which lies the romantic country of Nuristan.


182

The main road, leaving the Daroonta bridge to the right,
enters a spacious sandy plain, south of Laghman, and runs
roughly parallel to the Kabul River, which flows in the opposite
direction. After 25 miles from Daroonta, the road enters a
narrow defile, hardly 100 yards wide, enclosed by high and rugged
rocks. Below, the Kabul River rolls over boulders and huge
stones, tumbling with thunderous roar. The road for the most
part in this gorge is cut in the face of the rock, and though com-
paratively narrow, in some places is well-laid out and is free
from difficult or steep gradients.

At Sarobi, 42 miles from Jalalabad, where the gorge ends,
there is a fine rest house, overlooking the Kabul River. From
here the road enters another passage comparatively broader and
encompassed by low sandy hills. This is the Tezeen gorge,
(Tezeen Khuwar). Thence is enters a third defile between steep
and lofty hills, devoid of verdure. This is the Lataband Pass.
For the first 26 miles, the road scrambles up a steep ascent, from
4,500 to 8,200 feet, and then descends deeply into another narrow
gorge, Mulla Omar, till Butkhak is reached (6,500 ft.). Tractors
are used to keep the passage free of snow during winter.

A new hydro-electric plant has been installed at Sarobi
by a German engineering firm. This project, the largest of its
kind in the country, supplies electricity to the Capital as well as
to the new textile mills at Gul Bahar.

A new road between Kabul and Sarobi, the Tangi-Gharu
short-cut as it is called, is now under construction which well to
slice some ten miles off the driving distance from Kabul to
Peshawar. By making use of tunnels and hugging close to the
Kabul River, this road not only shortens the distance, but makes
driving safer, especially in winter, by avoiding the Lataband
Pass, which is often blocked with snow during winter.


183

The new highway, which has been opened to traffic, follows the left bank of the Kabul River for 6 miles out of Kabul, and then crosses over to the right bank, connecting with the old highway before reaching the Sarobi gorge.

From Butkhak to Kabul, a distance of 11 miles, the road passes through a spacious plain. This is the valley of Kabul. Midway between Butkhak and Kabul, just on the bank of the river Lohgar, a beautiful garden attracts the attention of the visitor. This is called Bagrami, a pleasant resting place for those who want to travel slowly. From here Kabul is not more than four miles distant.

Below is the table showing the various stages and their distances in English miles :

PESHAWAR TO KABUL
En route the Khyber and Lataband Passes :

Stages Distance Distances
 in miles between stages
Peshawar starting point 0
Jamrud 9 9
Landi-Kotal 30 21
Landi-Khana 34½ 4½
Torkham (Afghan Frontier Post) 35 ½
Dakka 42 7
Barikao 63 21
Jalalabad 82 19
Daronta 91 9
End of Laghman Valley 116 25
Sarobi 134 18
Highest Point of Lataband Pass 154 20
Butkhak 170 16
Kabul 181 11


184

Kabul (Height 6,000 ft. population 250,000): The city Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, lies in a triangular gorge formed by two ranges of high and steep mountains, the Asmai, 6,790 ft. (above sea-level), and Sherdarwaza, 7,166 ft., which, running south-east and north-west, nearly meet a little to the west of the old town, leaving between the two a narrow entrance traversed by the Kabul River and the roads from Ghazni and Paghman. These hills are covered with a long mud-wall, having round-towers at short intervals, probably built by the Kabul Shahis during the early period of the Muslim invasion. From the top of those hills a glorious view of the surrounding hills and mountain ranges, rising in successive waves one after another, may be obtained. The snowy summits of the lofty Hindukush, at a distance of 50 miles to the north, are also visible.

On the top of a rocky hill, south-east of the old city and at the eastern extremity of the Sherdarwaza Hills, stands the historical fort of Bala-Hissar, now the seat of a Military College founded by the late King Mohammad Nadir Shah. It was in this fort that the British Resident, Cavagnari, and his retinue were burnt to ashes, in September 1879.

On entering the city, the visitor's eye is first attracted by a column standing in the middle of a square. This is known as the "Munar-i-Najat" (the Column of Deliverance) erected in 1929 to commemorate the deliverance of the country from the cruel clutches of Bacha-i-Saqao, the Brigand Chief. To the right is a spacious parade and playground, called Chaman-i-Huzuri, where the Afghan Independence Day is celebrated each year. To the east of these grounds lies a small hill, Tappa-i-Maranjan. This is the Royal cemetery. Here lies the tomb of the late King Mohammad Nadir Sha-i-Shahid.


185

About four furlongs to the north of these grounds stand the buildings of the Ministry of Defence, the Military Hospital and the Central Customs Office, called Gumruk. The visitor on entering the city has to proceed straight to the Customs Office to get his luggage examined.

Between the Ministry of Defence and the Customs Office stands another Column. This is the Column of Independence, "Munar-i-Istiqlal", erected in 1919, after the termination of the Third Anglo-Afghan War to commemorate the brilliant victory of the late King Mohammad Nadir Shah, then the Sipah-Salar (Commander-in-Chief), of the Afghan forces. Beyond the Column, at the distance of three furlongs, lies the Arg (the Royal Citadel), the Palace of Dilkusha, and the Salamkhana (the Hall of Audience), the offices of the Prime Ministry, the Foreign Office, and the new city, now called Sherpur and Karta-i-Wali. South of the Arg extends the old city, divided into two parts by the river Kabul.

The old city is beginning to show signs of modernization and is being extended in all directions. It is estimated that with-in the next few years the city of Kabul will cover an area of no less than 60 square miles. At present, it is divided into five prominent parts : (1) the old city, pooled in a shallow depression at the foot of the Sherdawaza Hill, which dominates it from the south : (2) Sherpur extending north-west to Kolola-Pushta and Wazirabad; (3) Nawe Kabul (or New Kabul), which is being built in the beautiful Chardeh Valley ; (4) Shah-i-Shahid, the eastern extremity of the city, (5) Karta-i-Wali lies north of the old city.

Kabul, the seat of the Afghan Government, is a great commercial and educational centre. Modern means of trans-portation has brought it within easy reach of all parts of the country. Owing to its advantageous position, where routes from