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A NEW GUIDE

TO

AFGHANISTAN


Afs 60 50
قیمت ۴۰


A NEW GUIDE
to
AFGHANISTAN

by
MOHAMMED ALI, M.A.
Professor of History, Kabul University
and author of
Progressive Afghanistan, Guide to Afghanistan,
Commercial Afghanistan, A New Guide to Afghanistan,
Aryana or Ancient Afghanistan, Afghanistan—An
Historical Sketch, Customs and Manners of the Afghans
and
Afghanistan—The National Awakening

With one map and fifty-five illustrations

KABUL
1958


1st Edition 1938 1,000
2nd Edition 1955 1,000
3rd Edition 1959 2,000

All rights reserved with the Author.

Printed at the Northern Pakistan Printing and Publishing Co.,
16, Lawrence Road, Lahore.
1959


CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ... 2
PART I : GEOGRAPHY ... 7
Position & Extent ... 7
Boundaries ... 7
Physical Features ... 9
Mountains ... 13
Rivers & Lakes ... 20
Climate ... 33
Flora & Fauna ... 38
Agricultural Development in Afghanistan ... 41
Irrigation in Afghanistan ... 49
Fruits ... 51
Forest Vegetation ... 52
Animals ... 54
Birds ... 58
Structure & Minerals ... 59
Afghanistan's Electric Power, Present & Planned ... 63
Handicraft & Manufactures ... 67
Improvement of Sericulture in Afghanistan ... 78
Afghanistan's Foreign Trade ... 82
Major Provinces : — ... 86
(1) Kabul ... 86
(2) Kandahar ... 92
(3) Herat ... 93
(4) Mazar-i-Sharif ... 95
(5) Kataghan ... 97
(6) Samt-i-Mashriqi (Now Pactiya) ... 97
(7) Samt-i-Junubi (Now Nang rahar) ... 101


(ii)
Page
PART II : THE PEOPLE ... 102
PART III : LANGUAGE & LITERATURE ... 116
PART IV : THE GOVERNMENT ... 126
The Constitution ... 126
Duties & Powers of the House of Re-
presentatives ... 128
The Cabinet ... 129
Rights of any Afghan Citizen ... 130
The Afghan Coat of Arms ... 130
The Afghan Flag ... 130
Afghan Foreign Policy ... 131
Education in Afghanistan ... 132
Community Development Activities in
Afghanistan ... 138
PART V : AN HISTORICAL SKETCH ... 142
The Hotakis ... 143
The Durranis ... 147
The Mohammedzais ... 151
PART VI : INFORMATION FOR VISITORS ... 171
Passport & Visas ... 171
Customs ... 171
Currency Regulations ... 172
When to Travel ... 173
Transportation & Communications ... 174
Rates, Prices & Wages ... 177
PART VII : JOURNEYS THROUGH AFGHAN-
ISTAN ... 178
Routes to Afghanistan ... 178
(1) Peshawar to Kabul ... 178


(iii)

Page
(2) Kabul to Mazar-i-Sharif ... 189
(3) Mazar-i-Sharif to Herat ... 202
(4) Pul-i-Khumri to Khanabad ... 206
(5) Kabul to Kandahar ... 206
(6) Kandahar to Kala-i-Jadid ... 213
(7) Kandahar to Herat ... 214
(8) Kabul to Gardez ... 222

PART VIII : CHRONOLOGY OF IMPORTANT
EVENTS ... 228
PART IX : BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 243
APPENDIX I : Geological Tables ... 276
APPENDIX II : Weights & Measures ... 277
APPENDIX III : Afghan Calendar ... 278
APPENDIX IV : Banking & Currency ... 280
APPENDIX V : Periodicals ... 283
APPENDIX VI : A Brief Introduction to Colloquial
Kabuli Farsi ... 286


His Majesty Mohammed Zahir Shah King of Afghanistan


His Majesty King Mohammed Zahir Shah was born in
Kabul on October 15, 1914. Studied first at Habibia and
Istiqlal Schools, Kabul. In July 1924 proceeded to France
for higher education and studied at the following institutions:
Jeanson de Sally College
Pasteur College
Montpellier School
In 1930 His Majesty returned to Afghanistan and underwent
military training in Kabul. During the reign of his father was
appointed acting minister of the Ministry of National Defence
and the Ministry of Education. The last post he held until the
martyrdom of his father on November 8, 1933.


Preface to Third Edition
The second edition of this book appeared in November, 1955. It was given such a warm welcome by readers in and outside Afghanistan that all copies were sold out within three months.
Unfortunately, in that edition the author was unable to check the proofs for corrections. This time strenuous efforts have been made to remedy those defects. The present edition has been thoroughly revised and a number of alterations have been made. I have freely and gratefully availed myself of information and suggestions furnished by friends, readers and Government officials since the initial appearance of this book. In response to one suggestion made by my esteemed friend, Dr. Harold Amoss of Asia Foundation, this edition has been enriched by the addition of a new chapter—An Historical Sketch.
This New Guide and Brief Survey is destined to meet the needs of the casual tourist as well as of the more serious visitor who wishes to have a simple, rounded background on Afghanistan.
I desire to express my heartfelt gratitude to those who have taken an interest in the compilation of this new edition and who have aided me with their useful advice and suggestions. Special mention is to be made of the help given by Mr. Abdus Sattar Shalizi, Deputy President, Press Department, and Mr. Abdul Wahab Tarzi, President of the Tourists' Bureau, who very kindly went through the manuscript and proposed several alterations and improvements.
Last, though not least, I am grateful to my friend and colleague, Mr. Mohammad Ibrahim Sharif, who kindly co-operated in typewriting this manuscript.
Shershahmina, MOHAMMED ALI
Kabul, Afghanistan,
1-6-1958.


2

Introduction

No country comparable to Afghanistan in size, and no people approaching the Afghans in historical interest and importance has received so little consideration at the hands of modern writers as have Afghanistan and the Afghans. Moreover what is known about it is quite inadequate and inappropriate, for most of the books are written by those who have had their personal axes to grind. Some call it a "land of dreams", while others depict it as a forbidden land where no stranger is allowed to enter, and if perchance sets his foot on the soil "he is tempting fate". It is with a view to dispel these false notions, and to encourage friendly intercourse and better understanding that this book is offered to the public.

Afghanistan is a big country—larger than France or pre-war Germany. It has an area of over 270,000 square miles, nearly one-and-a-half times the size of Germany. The country has natural resources of great variety and in great abundance. She has mineral deposits, such as iron, coal, copper, lead, chrome, lapis-lazuli, asbestos, etc. Her potentiality for generating hydro-electric power is said to be immense. Recent reports suggest oil in different parts of the country in paying quantities. Agriculture, too, has great possibilities. With improved agricultural methods, extended irrigation, more capital, and better means of transportation and communication, Afghanistan would be able to support a population many times its present size.

It is a land of ancient traditions and ancient wisdom, the birth-place of great religious thinkers and philosophers. It has been properly called the cradle of the Aryan race, for it was here that the Aryan settlers, forefathers of the advanced nations of


3

today, for the first time took to a settled life and laid the founda-
tion of a rudimentary form of democratic government. It was
here that two of the great religious movements of the world—
Brahminism and Zoroastrianism—took their origin. Again it
was here that two of the great religious classics (the Rigveda and
the Avesta) came into being.

From the archæological point of view, the country is a
most remarkable storehouse of antiquities, only partly touched by
the hand of modern science. The Buddhist monasteries, carved out
of rocks, are still the wonder of tourists and scholars. The glory
of Bamian is inexhaustible. It was a great seat of culture,
similar to those well known to the Indologists in Nalanda,
Ajanta, Ellora, Odandapura, etc. The remains of Balkh, the
"Mother of Cities" when properly unearthed, might reveal the
treasures of Greco-Bactrian culture that are still hidden in the
soil of Bactria. The same may be said of the valley of Bagram
in Kohistan, which has finally been identified with the spot
occupied by the city of Capissa made famous by Ptolemy and the
Chinese pilgrim, Huien Tsang, in the seventh century A.D.

Numismatic and epigraphic evidence is also very prominent
in Afghanistan. The numerous varieties of ancient coins that are
found here give the impression that there is no country in the
world having such rich numismatic treasures. The coins that one
comes across are of unusual variety—Greek, Bactrian, Thracian,
Sassanian, Kushan, Hindu, ancient Afghan, Mogul, modern
Afghan, etc. The inscriptions known hitherto are not very
mumerous, for some parts of the country are not properly
excavated as yet. Naturally, most of these are in Arabic or
Persian, but there are also inscriptions in Greek, Sanskrit and
Pali, and even in Aramaic in the Southern Province.


4

Afghanistan was a great seat of Buddhism, and it was from
here that this religion found its way into China, Turkestan and
Mongolia. The Buddhist monasteries discovered in the various
parts of the country are not only important from the archæological
and historical perspectives, but also from the point of view
of the history of art. The well-known school of sculpture
that so wonderfully combined Greek realism with Indian
mysticism, and which was named the School of Gandhara un-
doubtedly had its centre at Hadda, six miles south of modern
Jalalabad, where its most beautiful specimens have recently been
discovered. As one goes from Hadda towards Peshawar, Taxila
and Lahore, the Gandhara specimens lose the striking beauty
that characterises the specimens of Hadda.

Afghanistan is also a promising field of investigation for
the student of comparative philology, who may hope here to
come across the last of the little known and dying Indo-European
languages, which are spoken in some of the mountain fastnesses
of the country even to this day. Some of these ancient Aryan
languages are still preserved to a considerable extent in their
original form and purity by many of the isolated hill-tribes.

It is also considered to be one of the most important
primary agricultural centres of the world; a whole series of
different plants have originated here. Afghanistan's vegetation
still awaits the investigation of the botanist, while the variety
of its rocks and soils affords a vast field of research for the
enthusiastic geologist.

The Afghans are a virile race of inexhaustible energy.
Some look upon them as "splendid specimens of humanity and
the best fighting men in Asia". They are a gifted people, brave,


5
intelligent, hospitable and self-reliant. They have a very strong
sense of nationalism. Indeed, pride of race and love of country
are instilled in an Afghan from the cradle, and nothing induces
him to surrender that love of independence that seems to be the
essence of his nature.

There is no caste in Afghan society; every Afghan thinks
himself as good as another. In fact, the political atmosphere of
the country is healthier for the delicate plant of democracy than
anywhere else in the East.

Afghanistan occupies a very important position in the
strategy and politics of Central Asia. Geography has made it
the great crossroad between North and South, East and West.
Its location, its strategic importance, and last though not the
least, its invigorating climate and the grandeur and beauty of its
mountain system make it one of the most interesting places in
the world to visit. Even to those who have neither hobbies nor
enterprise, but want rest and recreation in a lovely country with
a pleasant climate and an abundance of delicious fruits, Afghan-
istan would undoubtedly prove one of the best health-resorts in
the world. It is among those countries, which are still totally
unsophisticated and unspoiled. Here are towns and villages
where one may sleep or dine in comfort, and yet be surrounded
with the atmosphere of a culture as old as history itself. The
jaded visitor from the parched plains of the neighbouring count-
ries may regain health in its beautiful emerald green valleys,
which, having escaped the contamination of manufacturing life,
retain up to this day an ideal sylvan scenery and mediæval
tranquillity.

Afghanistan, once the crossroads between the East and the
West, after centuries of eclipse when the seas became the more


6

accessible and less expensive routes, has been given the opportunity once more to regain this old, prominent status with the advent of the air-age. Kandahar is located on the shortest air routes between Europe and Asia, and the air is today providing the main communication lines for the modern world. Truly never before has the old saying that history repeats itself seemed closer to dramatic confirmation.

At present, Afghanistan faces great and rapid changes. The last three decades have been a period of progress and national awakening. The State, with a view to opening new avenues of wealth, prosperity and better living to the people, is working on vast plans of educational, industrial and public welfare, and agricultural development of the country. A five-year plan for the construction of better roads, better means of communication, and the development of mines, industry, education and agriculture has been formulated. To implement and finance this vast development, the State has signed agreements with foreign countries for loans and financial assistance, intent on serving national interests, and in no way endangering national independence or security. Besides, Afghanistan has had recourse to the services of many foreign experts and construction firms, and like many other under-developed countries has been welcoming specialists and consultants who are able to help advance its modernization.

It is certain that if these vast plans and projects are honestly and successfully carried out, the day is not very far off when Afghanistan will take its proper place in the comity of advanced nations.


7

Geography

Position and Extent.—Afghanistan, that is, "the land
of the Afghans", is an important inland country of Central
Asia. It is roughly quadrilateral in shape, with a long narrow
strip projecting eastward to the confines of Sinkiang (Chinese
Turkestan). It lies completely in the North Temperate Zone
between parallels 29° 30' and 38° 30' of north latitude, and 60°
30' and 75° of east longitude. The greatest length from east to
west—from the Khyber to the Zulfikar Pass (extreme northwest)—
is a little more than 600 miles; while its greatest breadth from
north to south—from Kham-i-Ab, on the Oxus, to the Chagai
Hills, in the extreme south on the Baluchistan border—is nearly
500 miles. The total area aggregates 270,000 square miles, with
a population that may roughly be estimated at 12,000,000.

Afghanistan at present is land-locked as a result of British
appropriation in 1876 of the maritime province of Baluchistan,
till then a feudatory of the Amirs of Afghanistan. A little later
Quetta was also occupied and turned into a military station.
This policy not only cut off Afghanistan's access to the sea, which
is naturally a great obstacle to progress and trade; it went still
further, and in the words of Amir Abdur Rehman Khan "it
pointed a dagger at the heart of the country". Within the
existing borders there are seven major provinces (Naib-ul-
Hukumagi), viz., Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif,
Kataghan, Nangrahar and Pactia; and six minor provinces
(Hukumat-i-Ala)—Maimanah, Farah, Badakhshan, Girishk,
Parwan and Ghazni.

Boundaries: The boundaries of the country have under-
gone tremendous changes during the last 150 years. At the be-
ginning of the 19th century, the Durrani Empire, built by Ahmad
Shah Durrani (1747—1773 A. D.), extended from Meshad to


One of the lakes of Bandi Amir, near Bamian.


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8
Kashmir, and from the Oxus to the Satlej and the Arabian Sea.
The country suffered great diminution, first when the grandsons
of Ahmad Shah Durrani contested for supremacy, and secondly
when it came into conflict with the two great rival imperialistic
European powers—England and Tsarist Russia. The existing
boundaries, especially those in the south and east, are mostly
artificial, and have been forced upon the country from time to
time, irrespective of geographical, historical or ethnical con-
siderations.

The present boundary line between Afghanistan and Russia
(USSR) is over seven hundred miles long. Starting from the
north-east corner of Afghanistan, where the Oxus leaves its high
mountain cradle in the Pamir, it follows the course of the Oxus
or Amu Derya as far as the post of Kham-i-Ab (River Bend) in
the extreme north. From here the boundary leaves the Oxus and
takes a south-westerly direction till it reaches the post of Tor-
Ghundi opposite Kushkinski, the terminus of the Russian Trans-
Caspian Railway. From this point the border line takes a north-
westerly direction until it reaches the Zulfikar Pass, the trijunc-
tion point between Afghanistan, Iran and Turkmanistan. From
Kham-i-Ab to Zulfikar the boundary is laid through an open and
sparsely populated desert with occasional pasturage. It follows
no natural features and would be undefinable but for the pillars
set up by the boundary commissions.

From the Zulfikar Pass down to Siah Koh, the border line
between Afghanistan and Iran remained uncertain for many
years and was always the cause of friction and complaint between
the two neighbouring countries. Finally in 1934, a Turkish
General of repute, Fakhruddin Altai, was appointed arbitrator
by the countries concerned. His decisions were accepted by the
Governments of Afghanistan and Iran.


The Eastern Boundary: In 1849, after the collapse of the
Sikh power, the British crossed the Indus and occupied the trans-
Indus Afghan districts under the name of Sikh heritage. At this
time there were some prominent English statesmen who did not
like to support this imperialistic policy. One of them, Sir G.
Campbell, M. P., proposed to give these districts back to their
"original owners." In the words of Mr. Campbell : "My pro-
posal in 1849 was to give these extra-Indian districts back to the
Afghans, establishing our scientific military frontier upon the
Upper Indus. But that great man (Lord Dalhousie) had a
weakness; it was perhaps in a disposition to carry annexation
too far, and I venture to think him wrong when he overstepped
the natural and ethnographical boundaries of India in going
beyond the Indus on one side and into Burma on the other."

Later on (November 12, 1893) a new line of demarcation,
the so-called Durand Line, was forced upon Amir Abdur Rahman
Khan. The British according to this new pact excluded from the
Kabul political jurisdiction "a million Pathans* of military
age-the cream of the fighting strength of the country." This
line, which excludes over a third of the Afghan people from their
national government, has been the basic cause of all frontier
troubles since the beginning of the 19th century until this day.

PHYSICAL FEATURES
Afghanistan is a highland, its average height being three to
four thousand feet above sea-level. The general character of the
country is mountainous. It is largely covered by a series of ranges
running in all directions, but generally from north-east to south-
west. The north-eastern and central portions of the country form

*There is no real distinction between the Afghan, Pathan or Pashtun.
The Afghans, while speaking Pashto, call themselves Pashtuns. The word
Pathan is the corrupted form of Pashtun and is used mostly in India.


10

a great plateau with an average height of some six thousand feet, with the Hindu Kush as its backbone. On all sides this plateau descends abruptly to lowland, save in the north-east, where it rises to the lofty Pamirs. To the south of the country lies the arid land called Seistan and Garmser, the average height here being 1,600 feet. Towards the north of the Hindu Kush it slopes away into another depressed tract as far as the Amu (the Oxus)—a vast plain of loess. Eastwards there is a sudden drop into the Indus basin.

The central mountain range, or more properly ranges, dwindle away into the steppes and Namaksars (salt-deserts), lying north of Herat, where they meet the line of the Elburz coming from the opposite direction. The highest part of this plateau is the Pamir, more familarly known as "Bam-i-Dunya" (the Roof of the World). It is a vast plateau with a series of narrow valleys, having steeply sloping sides, the average height being ten to twelve thousand feet, while many of its intervening peaks run up to 18,000 feet and over. Here the characteristic types of landscape are "tent-shaped, glacier coated mountains, divided by broad easy gaps, heights bare of verdure and shorn of forests and a land of desolate lakes—a region where for the greater part of the year there is neither fuel nor fodder, an Engadine of Asia, with nine months "winter and three months cold weather; the home of wild sheep and shaggy yak, and the summer haunt of a few wandering shepherds."

Physically the country may easily be divided into eight distinct regions:

(1) The Broad Lowland of Ancient Bactria:—This lies to the north between the Oxus and the massive mountain system of Tirband-i-Turkestan and the Hindu Kush. The rivers that rise in these mountains and flow to the north almost


11

all lose themselves in the sands before reaching the Oxus. In ancient and mediæval ages Bactria had a fine system of irrigation, and was one of the richest parts of Central Asia. The Mongol depredations of the thirteenth century and later on Tamerlane's incursions wiped out all these irrigation works, and since then it has not fully regained its past fertility, and is therefore very sparsely populated.
(2) The Hindu Kush Region: This constitutes a mountainous mass, difficult of access, mostly barren and uninhabited. This massive range, which takes its source from the Pamirs, melts away in fingers that spread fanwise north, south and west over the face of the country as far as the Shibar and Bamian passes. The average height is over 15,000 feet, and the peaks, which are covered with eternal snow, rise to 18,000 feet and over. The stupendous heights of these mountains, the magnificence of their lofty summits, the solemn and undisturbed solitude that reigns amidst these eternal snows, fill the mind with awe and admiration.
(3) The Hilly Region of Badakhshan: This lies to the north-east, on the left bank of the Oxus. Here the mountains are generally covered with forests, and the intervening valleys are mostly fertile and well-watered.
(4) Kabulistan: This is the most convenient term for the series of high alluvial plains which, lying between 5,000 and 6,000 feet above sea-level, occupy the region round Kabul. These plains are well-watered by the Kabul and its numerous tributaries. They constitute the richest and most densely settled part of Afghanistan, with a bracing climate except where there are marshes.
(5) The Central Block of Hazarajat: This is a vast table-land extending from Herat to Kabul and from Ghazni to Bamian. It is a high, bleak, and intensely inhospitable country, where snow lies for the greater part of the year, and where little or no fruit


12

is grown, and the cultivation is confined to the narrow banks of the rivers and streams. This irregular tableland has been scored and eroded by centuries of river action. From here emerge some of the greatest rivers of Afghanistan. To the north the river Khulm (Tashqurghan) and the Balkh take a hurried start for the plains of Bactria; westward the Hari Rud streams off to Herat; southward extend the long curving lines of the Helmand, Harut, Khash Rud and Arghandab, and eastward flows the Kabul with its various branches. A rugged mountain mass, called the Koh-i-Baba and Firoz Koh, the lineal continuation of the Hindu Kush, dominates this rolling plateau from the North. Taken as a whole these Hazara uplands may be described as one would describe Tibet—a rolling, heaving, desolate tableland, wrinkled and intersected by narrow mountain ranges, whose peaks run from 13,000 to 14,000 feet in altitude, enclosing between them restricted spaces and pasture-land.

(6) The Arachosian Plain. This lies to the southwest. Here are the fertile districts of Kandahar and Zamindawar, watered by the Arghandab and the Helmand respectively. But the southwestern corner of this region constitutes a vast sandy tract, called Seistan. It is a flat, unwholesome country extending on either side of the Helmand. It owes its place in history and its reputation of enormous productiveness to the fact that it is the great central basin of Afghanistan, where the Helmand and nearly half-a-dozen other Afghan rivers run to a finish in vast swamps and lagoons. Surrounded by vast deserts on all sides, Seistan itself is seldom waterless, and there was, in days that can hardly be called ancient, a really fine system of irrigation, which fertilized a large tract of now unproductive land. The soil of Seistan is alluvial and consists chiefly of sand mixed with clay. A part of the surface shows moving sands. The land is generally flat, but there are a few low sandy hills.


13

(7) The Valley of Hari Rud: This occupies the north-western corner of the country and extends lengthwise to the border of Iran. It is extremely fertile and well-watered, and is known to history by the name of "the Granary of Central Asia."

(8) The Lowland of Jalalabad (or the Ancient Plain of Nangrahar): This lies to the east, between the Hindu Kush and the Speen Ghar Range, and comprises the fertile districts of Laghman, Besud, Jalalabad, Kama and Surkh Rud. The average height is 2,000 feet. Its black soil is very productive, but its climate, though very pleasant in winter, is hot and heavy disagreeable in summer.

Mountains

Afghanistan has rightly been called the land of mountains. From the air they seem to be without number ; range after range extend to the horizon, so that the land resembles a sea in a heavy gale.

The most important of the mountain systems of the country, being a continuation of the lofty Himalayas, is the Hindu Kush. It commences from the north-eastern corner of the Wakhan district, and taking a south-westerly turn, goes through the heart of the country. After traversing a distance of some 600 miles, it ultimatey dwindles away in the steppes and Namaksars of Herat. This gigantic range divides the country into two parts: the northern includes the provinces of Kataghan, Badakhshan, Mazar-i-Sharif and Maimanah; while the southern comprises the districts of Jalalabad, Kabul, Ghazni and Kandahar. This main range, the backbone of the country, which extends from the Pamir to the north of Herat, is known by different names in different parts of the country. The eastern portion


14
from the Pamir to the Bamian Pass, is called the Hindu Kush Proper, which is again divided into two parts, viz., the Oriental and the Occidental.
The Oriental Hindu Kush:—Starting from Wakhan it terminates at the Khawak Pass. The extreme north-east portion of this branch, at its junction with the Pamir, forms the boundary between three systems of drainage—those of the Indus, the Amu and the Tarim while further west it forms the watershed between the Amu and the Indus valleys. This part of the Hindu Kush rivals the Himalayas in the height of its peaks and the extent of its glaciers. It culminates in the beautiful peak of Tirich Mir (25,426 feet), located in the north of Chitral.
The Oriental Hindu Kush, though a great obstacle, is no effective barrier in a military or commercial sense, for it is notched by a series of high passes, some of which are traversable for the greater part of the year. From Hunza, a district to the north of Chitral the passes of Kilik (15,600 ft.), Wakhjir (16,150 ft.), and Mingatake (15,430 ft.) lead to the Little Pamir and Yarkand ; while from Chitral, the Broghil (12,460 ft.) and Kachin (18,500 ft.) lead into Wakhan. Other passes between Chitral and Afghanistan are : Sar Ishtrag (17,450 ft.), Agram (16,630 ft.), Afsik (12,300 ft.), Durah (14,800 ft.) and Mandal (15,300 ft.), the last provides communication between Nuristan and the Kokchah Valley.
A southern off-shoot of this range penetrates into the rugged but beautiful country of Nuristan—an inaccessible and difficult tract of dense mountainous forests, known by the general name of the Asmar Forests.
The Occidental Hindu Kush.—Beginning from the Khawak it terminates at the Dandan Shikkan Pass (8,830 ft.)


15

This range is comparatively shorter and broader, maximum breadth being 60 miles and the average height 14,000 feet. The principal peaks from east to west are: Sheptal (15,000 ft.) Ouilian (16,900 ft.), and Kharzar (15,000 ft.) This range, too, is intersected by a series of narrow but difficult passes, which from time immemorial, have been used by invaders and travellers, and were also the chief trade routes between India and Central Asian countries. It was through these passes that the hordes of invaders, such as the Aryans, the Greeks, the Khushans, the Mongols, Tartars and others poured down on the fertile plains of India.

The best known passes of this range are: the Khawak (11,640 ft.), Khoknoll (11,450 ft.), Til (11,640 ft.), Salang and Bajgah (12,300 ft.), Kaoshan (14,340 ft.), Chahardar (11,300 ft.) Bamian (8,830 ft.), Akrobat, (10,255 ft.) Pelu (10,255 ft.) and Dandan Shikan (8,830 ft.). It was through the Bamian Pass that the famous Chinese pilgrim Huien Tsang, passed on his way to India in the early part of the 7th century A.D. He was very much impressed by the gigantic figures of Buddha on the face of the cliff, where they are still to be seen, though slightly disfigured.

This range throughout is barren of everything except some tiny bushes of pistachio and silphium (or asafoetida), that are mostly found on its northern slopes.

Mr. Douglas in his famous book, "Beyond the High Himalayas," writes in this connection. "The weird formations which the middle stretch of the Hindu Kush show are secondary to the colors of the rocks. I have seen nothing more beautiful than what the Hindu Kush discloses. These rooks are filled with yellow, red, green, pink, and purple. The air is so clear, the sun so brilliant, that every color, every shade is emphasized.


The Buzkashi Match at Shahmahmud Stadium, Kabul.


A caravan route.


16

Every sunset turns peaks from gray to pink, to gold, to mauve. Every sunrise turns the Hindu Kush into mountains of magic."

The Koh-i-Baba.—Commencing from Bamian it extends westwards for a distance of about 125 miles. Its average height is less than 13,000 feet. Its culminating peak, Shah-i-Foladi or Shakh-i-Foladi, (16,874 feet) overlooks the sources of the principal rivers of the country, such as the Hari Rud, the Kabul and the Helmand. Another beautiful peak in this range is the Koh-i-Arus (the Mountain of the Bride), which, with its rose-coloured conical summit and dazzling cap of snow, attracts the attention from a great distance.

The Koh-i-Baba, like the Oriental Hindu Kush, is mostly rugged, desolate and devoid of verdure.

The Firoz Koh.—Further west of Koh-i-Baba is a double range, called Firoz Koh. It runs roughly parallel to the Tirband-i-Turkestan, another range lying to the north. The northern branch of the Firoz Koh is called the Safid Koh (the White Mountain), not to be confused with the Speen Ghar (Mont Blanc) of the Nangrahar Province. The southern range is known by the general name of Siah Koh (the Black Mount-ain). This too is rugged, mostly barren and pathless, and follows a course nearly parallel to the last named mountain. The southern spurs of this range give rise to the Khash Rud and some minor feeders of the Helmand.

The Parapomisus.—This is a small range lying to the extreme west, between the districts of Herat and Badghisat. Its local name is Siah Babuk. It is comparatively low and is nowhere more than 9,000 feet high. From the city of Herat to the crest of the Parapomisus, which is pierced by several easy passes, such as Ardewan, Sabz, Sang, Hazrat Baba, and


17

Zarmast, is a distance of 16 to 25 miles. The total fall from
these passes to Herat is about 2,000 feet. Between this range
and the city there is a low ridge called the Koh-i-Mulla
Khawaja, which dominates the city from a distance of about
three miles, only with a higher altitude of 600 to 800 feet.

The Speen Ghar (Mont Blanc).—This is an off-shoot of
the great Sulaiman Range. It overlooks the Afridi Tirah on
one side and the valley of Nangrahar (modern Jalalabad) on the
other. Sikkaram, its highest peak, is 15,600 feet in height, and
as it is covered with perpetual snow, the whole range being
termed Speen Ghar, i.e., the White Mountain. A high ridge of
this range penetrates the Jaji country, whence it stretches as
far as Jadran and Mangal territory (Pactia Province). The
slope of this range on both sides, as well as of those ranges that
penetrate the Southern Province (Pactia), are all covered with
dense coniferous forests. There are pine trees and grand
deodars (cedars), and magnificent ilex (oak) trees, which throw
broad square spaces of solid shade.

From here westward stretches a boundless vista of ridges
and hazy plains, fainting to almost imperceptible tints of blue,
till it is only against the yellowing evening sky that the pale
silhouette of the hills that stand about Ghazni can be detected.
Here lie the famous passes of Gomal, Tochi, Shuttargardan and
Peiwar (or Tootgai). The first two figure in mediæval history
and were selected early in the eleventh century, by the great
Sultan of Ghazni, Mahmud, who is said to have swept down
through these passes with his cavalry and with a rapidity that
seems incredible for those days.

The Sulaiman Range.—This mountain system serves as
a barrier between the Indus basin and the highlands of modern
Afghanistan. The Sulaiman Hills are mostly rugged, barren


18

and unprofitable. The mightiest of the Sulaiman Mountains
is the one which is called Takht-i-Sulaiman (Soloman's Throne).
It may be seen on the western horizon from Dera Ismail Khan
against the evening sky—a grey, flat-looking rampart rising
from the lower line of mountains north and south of it, slightly
depressed or saddle-backed in the middle, but culminating in a
well-defined peak at its northern extremity. Such is the appear-
ance of the Takht (the peak) from afar. It is difficult to
approach it for reason of the steepness of the cliffs and the
scarps which surround it.

Central Afghanistan (or Hazarajat) is to a very large
extent a land of difficult hills and deep and rugged defiles.
These numerous subsidiary ranges run mostly parallel to each
other, and some of them extend as far as Kandahar. One
exceptionally long spur forms the steep Khojak Range, which
has been pierced to allow a branch of the N.W. Railway to
reach the Afghan frontier at New Chaman.

The Tirband-i-Turkestan.—This most important range
lies south of Maimanah. It is about 120 miles long, and runs
roughly parallel to the Firoz Koh. Its highest peak, Zangolak,
reaches a height of 11,590 feet.

Passes Leading to the Indus Basin.—The mountain
ranges forming the eastern boundary of modern Afghanistan are
pierced at many places by passes across which invading hordes
have poured in all ages to take possession of the fertile valleys
below. They have also been the chief commercial links between
the sub-continent of pre-partitioned India and Afghanistan from
time immemorial. Most of these passes have been formed by the
valleys of the rivers flowing towards the Indus, and are generally
named after these tributaries. The most famous among these,


19

which has been frequently trodden and which is even now the most important trade route of the country, is the Khyber, from the name of the last defile through which the Kabul-Peshawar route passes. It goes along the Khyber Pass (3,370 ft.) to Jalalabad (1,950 ft.) and thence via Lataband Pass (8,000 ft.) or Tang-i-Gharu Gorge to Kabul (6,000 ft.), the capital of Afghanistan. The distance between Kabul and Peshawar is 180 miles.

The second route leads via Peiwar Kotal to the Kurram valley, joining the Jaji country with Parachinar and Thal. In the Second Afghan War (1878–80) this route was most frequently used by the British invading troops. It is not motorable. The distance between Kabul and Parachinar via Peiwar and Shuttargardan Passes is about 100 miles.

The third is the Tochi Pass, linking Ghazni with the Indus basin. It too, is, not motorable. It was frequently used by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030 A.D.) during his Indian invasions.

The fourth is the Gomal Pass. This route is also very important historically. The Gomal and Tochi have been used for hundreds of years by the great clans of warrior-merchants, the Ghilzais, Powindahs, and Kharotis who move their caravans down these passes each year to pass their winter in the warm plains below. They generally leave their women-folk, children and old men somewhere near the border, while the young men take their camels and merchandise to trade in the Punjab and Central India. Their wares consist mostly of carpets, felt-rugs, dried fruits, wool and lamb skins. On their return journey to Afghanistan, they take up textiles, tea, sugar and hardware.

This route starts from Dera Ismail Khan and goes along the Gomal Pass (7,500 ft.) to Ghazni (7,280 ft.) in Eastern


20

Afghanistan. A branch of it leads to Kilat-i-Ghilzai and Katawaz. Trade is carried over it on camels, horses and ponies.

The fifth is the Bolan Pass route, which starts from Quetta (5,000 ft.) and goes along the Khojak Pass and via Chaman (4,450 ft.) reaches Kandahar (3,340 ft.) in Southern Afghanistan. From Kandahar it passes farther into the interior of the country and goes to Herat via Farah in Western Afghanistan. From Chaman to Kandahar there is now an excellent motor road 70 miles long, which carries a considerable part of the trade of the country.

There are also some minor routes from Jalalabad to Bajaur and Swat via the Kunar valley. Alexander, the Great, during his march on India (327 B.C.) made use of one of these routes.

Rivers & Lakes.

Afghanistan, though well-watered, has few large rivers for a country of such a size. With the exception of the Amu (the Oxus), in the extreme north, which forms the natural boundary between Russian Turkestan and Afghanistan, there is no river in the whole of the country which is not fordable throughout its course for the greater part of the year.

Afghanistan is a closed basin, having no outlet to the open sea. Its maritime province, Baluchistan, was snatched from it in 1876, and incorporated with British India. Except the Kabul and its tributaries and a few small rivers in the south-east, which flow into the Indus, all the rivers of Afghanistan are either absorbed inland or disappear in the neighbouring countries. Though most of these rivers are not suitable for navigation they offer great potentialities for the development of combined irrigation and hydro-electric projects. But the greatest drawback in this


respect is that these rivers have a seasonal flow, being fed during
the rainy season, which does not last for more than four months,
and for the rest of the year they are practically without any ap-
preciable flow. The full utilization of the waters of these rivers
is, therefore, possible only by the construction of dams and
large storage reservoirs at suitable points, which in a hilly country
like Afghanistan, are not lacking. The flow of the stored water,
as it is let out for purposes of irrigation, can also be utilized for
generating electric energy.

The rivers of Afghanistan can easily be divided into three
categories: (1) Those that flow to the north, most of them
ultimately disappearing in oases from which there is no outlet; (2)
those that run to the east and empty themselves into the Indus ;
(3) those that run to a finish in the swamps and Hamuns of Hel-
mand.

(1) The rivers of the Oxus basin :

The Oxus.—Its old and classical names are: Wehrodh,
Kui Shu, Wurhu, and Jaihun. The modern name of Amu is
derived from the town of Amul, later Amu and Amuyah.

The Amu is the largest river of Central Asia, being 1,400
miles long, and serves as a natural boundary between Afghanis-
tan and Russian Turkestan for some 400 miles. Rising in the
plateau of the Little Pamir, which in winter is a world of snow
and ice, the Amu flows west through the depression of Central
Asia, and after leaving the Afghan border at Kham-i-Ab, turns
north-west and traverses a vast desert. It ultimately falls into
the Sea of Aral.

In its upper course the Amu is generally known by the
name of Punja or Five Rivers. Contributing to the volume of its
upper waters are two principal streams—the Pamir and the Aksu.


22

The trio drain the Pamirs, the Aksu uniting with Panjah at Kala-i-Wamar, the third at Langer Kisht. The Pamir and the Aksu rise amid the glaciers which drain into the Sarikul Lake (13,390 ft, above sea-level) and Lake Chakmaktin (13,100 ft). The five rivers which make up the waters of the Panjah or upper Oxus are; the Pamir, the Panjah, the Aksu (or Murghab), the Shakh and the Ghund.

The Oxus is very rapid in its early course. At Baza-i-Gumbaz and for a short distance along the Wakhan valley, the river slackens, until turning westward it recovers its speed and tumbles swiftly forward. From Rang, which is a little east of Ishkashim, to Khorok in Shighnan, there is a preceptible increase in the current of the river.

The Oxus, in its passage through the Wakhan valley, presents a number of interesting contrasts. In its higher reaches, at first a tumbling mountain torrent, it becomes, below Langar-Kisht, a slow lifeless stream, so nerveless and placid that it cannot carry with it the stones which it has brought from its upper course. The eye meets here vast areas covered with large quantities of debris. But a little below, as far as Ptuk, there is a belt of vegetation, and the banks are covered with grass. There are many willows, white poplars, and here and there impenetrable copses of camel thorns. Beyond Ptuk once more the beneficient character of the river changes, and the banks reflect a waste of sand-dunes and patches of drift sand. Even the mud deposit of the main stream appears to be exhausted. The mountains at Langer Kisht recede considerably on either side from the river and thus make room for a broader valley. But they close again immediately west of Kala-i-Panjah, forming a very narrow ravine through which the river can just pass. Beyond this narrow passage the valley expands once more and the rivers is divided into a


23
number of arms, dotted with little islands, all covered with stunted thorny bushes.
Between Sersai and Nut, the stream forces its way through such a narrow rocky ravine that the boom of the falling waters echoes throughout the valleys. Below Nut the valley widens, and the banks of the river are covered with thick copses—the haunt of wild animals and the home of many beautiful birds.
After making a semicircle round Badakhshan, the Amu enters the ancient plain of Bactria, so famous in history. Here it receives the waters of the Kokcha and the Kunduz (now Baghlan), which rise from the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush. The period of the greatest activity of these rivers begins in May, when the ice melts and the heavy snow breaks up. At such a moment a large volume of water sweeps their shallow channels, carrying with it huge masses of stones and ice, running with such a force as to make fording extremely difficult and dangerous. The main channel is so swollen that the great quantity of water passing through its bed breaks its bounds and totally inundates the adjoining valleys.
From Hazrat-i-Imam onwards, the river flows in open country, and is no longer confined by the walls of mountains. Numerous feeders appear on either bank at this point of its course. The Kulab, Surkhab, and Durban appear on the right, while on the other side Kataghan and Mazar give rise to a large number of streams, but nearly all of them are exhausted (specially those of Mazar) before they have an opportunity to effect a junction with the Oxus.
The Oxus is peculiarly liable to shift its channel, and has done so from time to time, forming new islands, taking fresh curves, and actually changing its destination from the Caspian


The remains of an old Watch tower.


The Independence Memorial, Kabul.


24

Sea to the Aral. In its lower reaches the bed of the river is
extremely muddy, and it has been estimated that no less than
16,000,000 tons of sedimentary matter constantly pass down the
channel to form a vast delta at its mouth.

The Kokcha.—This is a small turbulent tributary of the
Amu and takes its source near Ramgul Pass, at the northern foot
of the Hindu Kush. Taking a northerly direction, it flows past
the villages of Anjuman, Skarkar, Parwara, Ishpishmir: Garm,
Iskan, Jurm, Khairabad, and reaches Faizabad, the capital city
of Badakhahn. Then turning north-west it passes below Rustaq,
and making for the Oxus, flows into it to the north of Hazrat-i-
Imam. Little use is made of the waters of this river, for its bed
is very deep and the current is extremely swift.

The Kunduz.—Another river of this category is the Kun-
duz, now called Baghlan. Rising in the western Hindu Kush,
near Bamian, it flows through the Shikari Pass, where it is known
by the name of Bamian Stream (Rud-i-Bamian). At Doab it
receives the waters of the Shighnan and Kamard. The joint
stream then breaks out of the Hindu Kush gorge near Barfak,
and makes for Doshi. After passing through a series of difficult
narrow valleys, and through steep and rocky banks, it reaches
Pul-i-Khumri, a comparatively open country. Leaving Baghlan
to the west it flows straight to the north and, via Aliabad,
goes to Kunduz, whence, turning north-east, it flows into the
Oxus.

The Kunduz, throughout its length, in the plains as well as
in the hilly districts, is utilized for irrigation purposes, so very
little is left of it when it makes a junction with the Amu.

Other tributaries of the Oxus, which take their rise on the
northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, are: the Tashqurghan, the


25

Balkh and the Maimanah. But they often lose themselves
on their way and seldom reach the Oxus.

The Murghab (385 miles). -This is an important river of
this group, and takes its rise in the mass of mountains connecting
the eastern extremities of the Firoz Koh and the Tirband-i-
Turkestan. At first it flows in a westerly direction, but after
receiving the waters of numerous tributaries, it turns north-west
and passes the Afghan fortress of Bala Murghab and the border
post of Karawalkhana. At the latter place it receives the waters
of the Kansar, one of its affluents. Continuing in a north-
westerly direction it flows past Maruchak, lying on the right
bank, where a short distance below, the Kashan flows into it. At
Maruchak the river is the dividing point between Russia and
Afghanistan for a distance of some 15 miles. The villages of
Panjdeh and Akteppe are both situated upon the left bank of the
river, within the Russian territory. At Akteppe it receives the
waters of the Kushk river, which rises from the northern slopes
of the Parapomisus range. From this point onward the Murghab
flows in a due northerly direction, till it runs dry in the sands
of the Karakum desert.

The country through which the river flows is, in the main,
a mixture of desert wastes and cultivated strips, with rising up-
lands, carpeted in spring by bright flowers and hidden in winter
by heavy snows. South-west of Bala Murghab the valley narrows
to a defile. Through this the river rolls, tumbling with thunder-
ous clamour towards Panjdeh, where it acquires a considerable
breadth. The swiftness of its current and the uncertainty of its
depth, together with deep holes and masses of protruding rocks,
add to the hidden dangers from quicksands, and make fording
intricate proceeding. Rafts and inflated skins are generally
employed by the local people while crossing this river.


26

The Hari Rud (530 miles). This is the last river of this group, and takes its source from the Dai Zangi mountains, west of Koh-i-Baba, at a height of 10,050 feet. It is chiefly formed by the combination of two streams, Sar-i-Jangal and Tangalab, which meet a little below the village of Daulatyar (8,117 ft.). For a distance of about 300 miles the Hari Rud flows from east to west, mostly through the fertile valley and charming scenery of the province of Herat, roughly parallel to the Parapomisus range. Then flowing south of the city, it makes for Zindajan. Here 30 miles west of Herat, it changes its direction and turns north-west, passes Kushan, and finally touches the Iranian border at Toman Agha, whence, for a distance of some 60 miles, it forms the natural boundary between Afghanistan and Iran. It leaves the Afghan border at the Zulfikar Pass, and after irrigating the Tejend Oases, it gradually dwindles away, until it ultimately loses itself in the sands. The province of Herat, the "Granary of Central Asia", owes its importance, undoubtedly, to this river, and it may be appropriately called the "Gift of the Hari Rud."

(2) Rivers which take their waters to the Indus: The greatest river of this category is the Kabul, which is quite an insignificant stream in its early course. It rises at a height of 14,079 feet under the Unai Pass, on the western slopes of an extension of the Paghman range, which separates it from the sources of the Helmand. This river in the irrigation season runs dry in its upper course as all the water is diverted from it into the fields that border it.

The Kabul after issuing from the Unai Pass, first takes an easterly direction, and passes through the villages of Taghri, Jalrez, the Mamakai. Then suddenly changing its course, it flows south-west and waters Maidan, a fertile valley 25 miles west of


27

Kabul. After flowing through a narrow gorge, Lalandar by name, it makes a circuit round the Korough mountain, south of Kabul, and enters the beautiful valley of Chardeh. Here it receives the waters of the Paghman river. The joint stream, under the name of Rud-i-Kabul, passes through the Guzargah Pass, and flows through the heart of the old city. The Lohgar, after irrigating the famous Lohgar valley, joins it a little below the city. It is really a bigger stream than the Kabul and plays an important part in the agricultural development of a very large district south of the capital, a district which rivals any in Afghanistan for beauty of natural scenery and richness of cultivation.

The Kabul, after irrigating the vast plains east of the capital, enters another gorge, the Tang-i-Gharu. A few miles below, it makes a fall, known as Mahipar. It then enters the Sarobi plain, where it receives the waters of the Panjsher, the Shuttal, the Ghorband, the Tagab and the Mahipar. The joint stream then makes for the Laghman valley through a third gorge—Tangi Abrishimi (the Silken Gorge)—which is 18 miles long and is encompassed by high rugged hills. It then moves along the fertile valley of Laghman (old names : Lampaka and Lamqan). Here two more tributaries, Alishang and Alinghar, flow into it. Below Daronta, where the Kabul is crossed by a suspension bridge, the Surkh Rud joins it from the south-west. Here the Kabul becomes a river of considerable size, and fording is not possible. A few miles below Jalalabad, near Kama, the Kunar, coming from the north, joins it. The river Kabul then flows eastward, roughly parallel to the Kabul-Peshawar road. After crossing Dakka, Afghan frontier post, it forces its way through a fourth gorge in the independent Mohmand territory. This portion of the river contains several whirlpools, which render


[BLANK PAGE]


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moderately placid and shallow, the fords are always bad because of the boulders and stones in the bed.

The Kunar valley of Bashgul, or Arnawai, together lead up to the Mandal and Dorah Passes, either of which is the gateway to the rich valleys of Eastern Afghanistan, and opens a direct line to Jalalabad from the Oxus, which does not touch Kabul at all. These passes are high, difficult, and very much more deeply buried under snow than those further west. The Broghil Pass, which leads out of the Yarkhun valley into Wakhan, is practicable for laden animals during eight months of the year. The Dorah Pass is also much trodden, and is also used by pack animals as a commerical link between the Kunar valley and Badakhshan, but it is open for traffic for three months only—from July to September.

Other important rivers of this category are : the Kurram, the Tochi, the Gomal, the Kundil and the Sharan Toi, all flowing east to join the Aba-sin, or the Indus.

(3) Rivers that empty their waters into the Seistan Lakes: The most important river of this group is the Helmand, which drains the south-western part of the country. The name also takes the forms of Heirmand and Hilman ; ancient names are : Etymander, Etyman-doros, Erymanthus and Hætumat.

The Helmand is the largest of the inland rivers, being 625 miles in length. It rises in an elevated valley on the western side of the Paghman range, an offshoot of the great Hindu Kush. In its preliminary course, for a distance of nearly 200 miles, it flows in a westerly direction through the heart of Hazara country. Then it breaks out of the mountains and drains the open country and cultivated plains of Zamindawar. Below Girishk it receives the joint stream—the Arghandab-Tranak-Arghastan—which drains south-western Afghanistan. The Helmand then enters a desert


30

which extends throughout its lower course till it terminates in
the lakes of Seistan. There the Helmand divides itself into many
channels, forming, as it were, an inland delta, from which the
waters are evaporated by the hot air, for there is no opening to
the sea.

The immediate banks of the river and the country within
half a mile are nearly everywhere, with the exception of the
great desert, fertile and in most places well-cultivated. Though
fordable for the most of the year in the greater part of its length,
the Helmand is still a formidable river. Even in the dry season it
is breast-deep at the fords, but at the time of snow-melting, that
is, early spring, it is very rapid, and fording is a dangerous task.
Inflated skins and toteens (a kind of raft) are used in crossing
this river at its mouth.

The Helmand has frequently changed its course within
historic times. Silting up its bed, it has always struck out new
channels for itself. It has altered the face of the land so extens-
ively and so often that it is rather difficult to prove the vast
extent of its ancient agricultural wealth and the immensity of its
population. Besides this, other forces of nature, which seem to
be let loose on Seistan with peculiar violence and activity, have
also been at work to change its topography. The sweeping blasts
of the north-west wind, which rage through this part of Asia with
a strength and persistence unknown in regions more protected by
topographical features, are forming vast, smooth slopes to the
windward side of every obstruction by smoothing off the rough
angles of the gaunt bones of former buildings, and sometimes
positively wearing them away by the force of attrition. Villages
that flourish one year may be sand-buried the next; channels
that now run free with water for crop may be chocked in a


31

month; and all the while the great Helmand, curving north-ward in its course, pours down its steady volume of silt brought from the highlands, carrying tons of debris into open plains where it is spread out, dried, wind-blown and swirled back again southward in everlasting movement.

The Helmand in Seistan is a different river from that of its early course. Its character changes from the point where it makes its great bend north towards its final exit into the lagoons and swamps of the Hamun. At Charburjak the Helmand is a wide, rippling stream when in flood. To its north lies the great flat, wind-swept Dasht-i-Margoo, about as desolate and arid a region as fancy could depict. To the south lies Dasht-i-Zirreh, with its innumerable sand-dunes resembling islands in a sea of sand.

The Arghandab.—This is a tributary of the Helmand, and takes its source in the Hazarajat country near Barhaq Pass. It flows in a south-westerly direction, and, after crossing Kilat-i-Ghilzai, it emerges into an open plain and irrigates the richest part of Kandahar province. It is a small stream in winter, but deep and rapid when fed by the melting snow.

Other rivers of this group are : the Khash Rud the Farah Rud, and the Harat. All three rise in the Hazarajat, drain the south-western part of the country and ultimately empty themselves into the Hamun.


A Part of the Kajaki Dam.


An irrigated field in the Arghandab Valley, Kandahar.


32

Lakes.—Afghanistan, in spite of its great size, has very few large lakes. The best known of these are :—

The Hamun-i-Helmand and the Godi Zirreh, lying southwest on the Persian-Afghan border, are shallow salt-lakes. The latter is, perhaps, the mostsalt lake in the world, for it is said that its waters are even more laden with salt than those of the Dead Sea.

Ab-i-Istadah is another small lake, about 80 miles south of Ghazni. It too, has no outlet, and its water is therefore salt.

Sarikul (Lake Victoria or Lake Wood) lies north of Wakhan on the Russian border. It is frozen for the greater part of the year. This fine lake lies in the form of a crescent, about 14 miles long from east to west, and with an average breadth of one mile. On three sides it is bounded by swelling hills, not more than 500 feet higher than the level of the lake, while along its southern side it is enclosed by a high mountain some 3,500 feet above the lake, or about 19,000 feet above sea-level. It is covered with perpetual snow, and from this never-failing source the lake is supplied. The surrounding hills and mountains that encircle Sarikul give rise to some of the principal rivers of Central Asia.

Sheva, a lake of blue, sweet water, is situated on the western border of Badakhshan, close to the Oxus. This, too, is very cold and is generally frozen over for three-quarters of the year.

Band-i-Amir is a series of small but extremely beautiful lakes, lying some 50 miles west of Bamian in the lap of the Koh-i-Baba. These fine natural lakes, as we could call them, are encompassed on all sides by high hills of various colours,


33

the reflection of which in the bluish-green and transparent water below, adds to the charm of these lakes.

In addition to these there are a few small salt lakes in the western part of the Herat province. There are also a good many signs of other ancient lakes in this locality which have dried up, and it is on this account that the place is called Namaksar, that is, Salt-Desert.

On the top of the mountain next to Paghman there is a small lake called Hauz-i-Khas, a splendid place for those who are interested in mountaineering.

Climate.—The climate of the country, generally speaking, is cold in winter, hot and dry in summer. The central plateau, owing to its higher altitude, is cooler than the rest of the country, which has an intensely high temperature (of over 100° F.) during the summer months (June and July). It is generally characteristic of the Afghan climate that there is a great variation of temperatures between winter and summer, day and night, sun and shade. These variations are, however, less pronounced in the east, where the climate merges with that of pre-partitioned India. On the whole, the climate should be pronounced as extreme, ranging from—12° to 110° F.

Afghanistan is far removed from the moderating influence of the sea. There are no cooling sea breezes to counteract the heat of summer, nor are there warm ocean currents and pleasant westerly winds to mitigate the cold of winter.

High up in any of the numerous and beautiful side valleys or upon the meadowy slopes of the Hindu Kush, Speen Ghar or Koh-i-Baba, almost any gradation of climate is to be had. Thus while at Kabul (6,000 ft.), in July, the mean temperature


34

is about 80° F. in the valley of Paghman, some 16 miles to the west of the capital and at an elevation of 7,200 feet, the mean temperature would scarcely exceed 60°. Higher up on the slopes of the Paghman range, the average temperature would not exceed 50°, while great extremes of cold nights are met. In stretches which occur at higher levels (8,000 to 10,000 ft.) one gets some extraordinary conditions of temperature. There are places where the ground temperature in the sun may be over 60°, while it is still freezing in the shade.

In the height of summer, when the plain of Jalalabad is extremely sultry, and while the very air is frequently so hot as to cause the death of persons exposed to it, the Afghan Mont Blanc (Speen Ghar) lifts its lofty head, covered with perpetual snow. The nearest hills are cold and pleasant, and the more remote ones are covered with snow. However, the winters of Jalalabad, as well as those of Kandahar, are very agreeable, and are scarcely colder than those of Northern India, while the winters of the central plateau, especially that of Ghazni and Hazarajat, remind one of the severity of a Russian winter. On every side there are glassy sheets of ice for those who like to skate. Afghan children, incidentally are fond of skating and most of them glide on ice with their shoes.

The coldest month of the year is the month of Dalv (corresponding to January 21 to February 20) when the mean temperature falls below zero. The lowest temperature occurs in cold waves, which may last several days.

One of the hottest parts of the country is Seistan, in the extreme south-west. The heat in this part is more deadly than the sword of a human enemy. Here dust-storms occur frequently at all seasons, sometimes changing the light of midday to an intensity of darkness to which no ordinary night ever approaches.


35

This darkness is sometimes accompanied by a blast of the Simoon—a wind which is generally destructive to vegetables as well as to human and animal life.

Rainfall is very scanty; nowhere more than 15 inches in a year. The Monsoon, which sweeps over India from June to September, brings rain only to the eastern valleys that lead to the Indus, and the rest of the country is totally dry during summer months. Afghanistan gets much of its precipitation as winter snow, and a small but very important contribution of rain in spring. The rainfall of the country is neither certain nor well-distributed. These spring-rains are nearly always accompanied by thunderstorms, hail and sudden downpours, causing great damage to houses, fields, and fruit-trees.

The winter-snow results from the cold north-west winds. Usually there are half a dozen snow-falls (from December to the end of February). Throughout the mountainous districts snow lies on the ground for several months, while the villagers remain inside their huts for the greater part of the day, if there is no sunshine.

One of the chief characteristics of the Afghan climate is the clear blue sky and the large amount of sunshine throughout the year. Almost cloudless skies are the rule in summer, and even in winter, clouds are less numerous than would be expected. The unpleasant chill of winter finds compensation to some extent in the bright sunshine. A comparatively low rainfall and blue skies render the mountain scenery an enticement to the tourists coming from countries of foggy atmosphere.

The dry summer conditions are ideal for the ripening of delicious fruits for which Afghanistan is famous throughout the world. Typical examples are the citrus fruits of Jalalabad


valley, such as oranges and lemons, and great varieties of
deciduous fruits-such as apricots, peaches, plums, pears,
apples, etc.

By the middle of March or the Naoroz (New Year's Day,
corresponding to the 21st of March) the winter breaks up. The
spring moves in everywhere-showery, sometimes even windy
and rather cold. But by the beginning of May the sun begins
to assert itself; the weather continuing pleasant until the
beginning of June, when the increasing heat in most areas drives
the people to "yelaq", that is the countryside or the adjoining
hills. Judging from the physique, strength and activities of the
inhabitants, we should pronounce the Afghan climate on the
whole bracing and favourable to the human constitution. Those
who have felt the refreshing effects of the strong winds of its
lofty mountains and highlands, need not fear for their health
and comfort.

The great difference between the seasons and the quickness
with which they change has a striking effect on the customs and
dress of the inhabitants. In winter all are clad in long woollen
garments or skins called Posteen.

They have fires constantly in their houses, and often sleep
around stoves (or sandalies). When spring sets in and the
snow suddenly disappears, the country is covered with a green
carpet of young grass, the buds burst forth, and are soon
followed by a profusion of beautiful gay flowers, reminding one
of these lines:

And here's that glorious life in bloom,
Gone are the blankets too,
As Nature starts to paint again,
And man comes out to view.


37

From icicles to merry spray,
To waterfall and rushing stream :
Of gardens pleasant and gay,
Folk on the plains now dream.

With the coming of spring and warmer weather, sports can be enjoyed, many of which continue through the summer and autumn. These range from playing marbles and jumping ropes, to basketball, football, volleyball, tennis, summer camping, buz kashi, horse-back riding, and hikes and picnics.


38

Flora and Fauna

Vegetation and Food-products.—The uncertainty and
scantiness of rainfall, the average of which is not more than
15 inches a year, mostly received in winter and early spring,
play an important part in the agricultural life and economic
development of the country. A good rainfall naturally affects
not only the amount of dry cultivation, called the Lalmi, which
depends entirely on spring rains, but it also affects the irrigated
crop, called Abi, and the spring-streams and Karezes (sub
terranian channels).

In the greater part of the country there are two harvests;
the one reaped in summer, called Bahari or the spring-crop, is
the result of autumn sowing, and includes wheat, barley, and
certain varieties of peas and beans. The second harvest, called
Tirmahi or Autumnal, is gathered in autumn from a spring
sowing, and includes crops of rice, Indian corn, varieties of
millet, mash (phascolous mungo), tobacco, turnips, and maize,
besides other grains of less importance. The loftier regions,
such as Hazarajat, Kabul, Asmar and Badakhshan, yield but
one harvest.

In addition to these cereals, crops of madder, cotton,
clover, hemp and lucerne, are very largely cultivated, clover,
trefoil and lucerne from important fodder crops, and when
properly irrigated, are said to afford ten to twelve cuttings in
the season. They are given green to the cattle during summer,
and a large quantity is dried and made into wisps to be used
in winter. Green lucerne is given to horses, mules and cattle,
sometimes alone, and sometimes chopped and mixed with chaff.
Great care is necessary in judging the proper quantity of green
lucerne to be given to cloven-footed animals, as they relish it
so much that they often over-eat and burst, unless promptly


39

treated. Vegetables include the egg-plant, spinach, leek, cabbage, cauliflower, marrow, gourd, raddish, carrot, turnip, onion, potato, tomato, garlic, etc.
Of the cucurbitaceous crops, known as Palez, melon, water-melon (Kharbooza and Tarbooz) are the most important. The province of Mazar-i-Sharif is especially noted for its delicious melons. Some of them are said to be so delicate that they would crack if a rider were to pass by them very swiftly, and some are so sweet that one has to take nearly half an inch off the slice before eating it.
Northern Afghanistan is the home of wild-melon, a weed found in the crops of maize, sorghum and cotton. Sometimes it may be observed outside the crops, along the river banks and roads. On the whole expanse of Seistan, from Farah right up to the Iranian border, the wild water-melon is met with. In the desert of Helmand and Bukwa, on the Kandahar-Herat road, vast sandy tracts are covered with the growth of these melons, of the size of an orange. In winter dried fruits are driven by the storms over the deserts like balls.
Other cultivated plants are cotton, sugarcane and beet-root. Sugarcane is grown extensively in the district of Laghman, Jalalabad, Lower Kunar, Chakhansur and Farah. It is chiefly used in making raw sugar, gur as they call it. Recently a sugar mill was established at Jalalabad to make use of sugarcane grown in the district.
Cotton of best quality grows with facility in Northern Afghanistan up to an elevation of 5,000 feet above sea-level. The soil and climate of Kataghan and Mazar-i-Sharif are especially favourable to cotton-growing. Before 1935 the annual output was below 400 tons. Since then it has increased tremendously. Cotton yields have been boosted by seed


Tangalak Factory Kabul.


Afghan National Bank & D'Afghanistan Bank, Kabul.


40

improvement and successful demonstration of the use of long-handled hoe. As a result cotton production which before 1950 rarely exceeded 10,000 tons a year, in 1955 reached 47,270 tons, and is expected to reach 60,000 tons in the near future.

The increase in the production is due to the two-fold encouragement this branch of agriculture has received at the hands of the State. First, direct assistance was rendered by the Government. Taqavi or farm loans were given to the peasants free of interest. Agricultural schools and experimental stations were established. Improved varieties of cotton-seeds were supplied. Several irrigation projects were undertaken and these proved of inestimable value for the increase in cotton production. Finally in 1954 a new Cotton Export Corporation, sponsored by the Government, undertook to spread modern cultivation methods, and to improve seeds and quality of the lint.

Secondly, the state accorded indirect assistance by the protection of cotton-ginning and weaving industries within the country. A large portion of this cotton is consumed locally by the textile-mills and hand-looms, and the surplus is exported.

The cotton grown in the Central Plateau is of low quality, being of very short staple. On the whole, Afghan cotton is much superior in quality to the cotton grown in the adjacent countries and has, therefore, a ready market abroad.

Beet-root is cultivated extensively around Baghlan and is made into sugar at the same place. Sugar-beet harvested in 1953 totalled 23,000 tons, but in the opinion of Edwin P. Pathison, sugar-beet expert of the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization in Afghanistan, better cultivation and better seed strains are expected to result in a yield of 56,000 to 60,000 tons in the coming years.


41
Agricultural Development in Afghanistan.
At present there are vast plans for the agricultural develop-
ment of the country, the most important of these being the Hel-
mand Valley Project. The valleys of the north-east are fertile
and capable of high productivity, but the south-west, with its
great areas of uncultivated or occasionally cultivated land, offers
the greatest possibilities for future development. This region is
primarily drained by the Helmand River and its system of tribut-
aries. The Helmand Valley is an inland basin, cut off from the
sea on all sides by a ring of mountains. The watershed covers a
large area, draining the southern slopes of the high Hindukush
mountains. The Helmand is the perennial source of considerable
size; the low flow during the summer months rarely goes below
1,500 to 2,000 cfs. (42 to 56 cubic meters per sec.).

The Helmand empties into the Hamun-i-Helmand, a series
of shallow lakes in the south-western corner of the country, along
the Iranian border. Also discharging into the lakes are several
other smaller streams which drain the southwestern part of the
country, viz., the Adraskand, Farah, Khuspas, Khash Rud and Dor
Rud. These streams may have flood discharges of considerable
magnitude, but the annual flow is largely taken for upstream
irrigation, and in general they are intermittent streams; the
lower reaches are usually dry during a large part of the year.

There is evidence that Hamun-i-Helmand was once of very
much greater extent. In the past ages, the rivers discharging into
this great inland sea carried large quantites of sediments which
were deposited on the lake floor during a long period of time.
With change of climate the sea receded, exposing a broad flat
terrain of deep silt. That portion of this region which lies in
Afghanistan is known as Chakhansur. This area has probably
been cultivated to a greater or lesser extent since the dawn of


42

history, as evidenced by the innumerable cultural ruins of all ages which abound. This region suffers from an adverse climate, however, since the normal rainfall is very low (probably about 5 inches per year), the weather is hot and dry for long periods, and a hot, strong wind blows continuously for four months during the summer causing heavy wind erosion, dust storms and areas of active sand dunes. Furthermore, in some sections the soil is saline, and has an inherent low ferility. In spite of these drawbacks, vast areas have apparently been cultivated in the past and supported large populations, but today the population is sparse and only a comparatively small portion of land is being farmed.

Additional arable land exists in the flood plains bordering all the river valleys; also some valuable soils occur in the alluvial bottoms of the "mandas" and dry washes on the higher desert benches, where silt is dropped during run-off periods. The latter areas are usually of small extent, and offer only limited opportunities for cultivation.

Owing to the arid and dry climate practically all cultivation in southern Afghanistan must be supported by irrigation. Irrigation water has generally been obtained, within the period of recent history at least, on a local community basis, either by direct diversions from the rivers—often augmented during low flow by temporary brush dikes, or from karez. The annual run-off of the rivers is sufficient to irrigate much larger areas than have actually been cultivated, but owing to the fact that about 70% of the flow occurs during three months in the spring, most of the water cannot be utilised and runs to waste, while during the rest of the year the flow is inadequate. This unequal distribution puts definite limitations on the extent of cultivation and types of crops which can be raised. By storing excess of the


43
spring floods in reservoirs, and then by regulated release of this water as needed during the rest of the year, it is possible to put a much larger proportion of the total amount of available water to productive use and to permit agricultural expansion, at the same time alleviating the ill effects of destructive floods.
The Government of Afghanistan, with this object in view, entered into contract with Morrison-Knudson, an American firm, for engineering studies, designs and construction (in 1946). The Company has been continuously engaged on these projects from that time to this day.
The first construction projects entered upon were the Boghra Diversion Dam on the Helmand River, a few miles above Grishk, and the Boghra Canal. The Canal had been started some years previously and had been partially excavated by hand labour methods. After MKA took over the contract, they brought in heavy equipment and tractors, "Carryall" scrapers power shovels and draglines of large capacity, etc., and the job proceeded on a production basis. By May of 1950, the first 40 miles of the canal had been dug and the necessary concrete structures built, including three long, large-diameter siphons and three shorter siphons crossing under major "Mandas". At one point in the canal, near Girishk, a power drop was provided, and the concrete structures for a hydro-electric power plant was built to provide for future power installation.
In April, 1950, the Government entered into a second con-tract with MKA for additional public works construction, and negotiated an agreement with the U. S. Export-Import Bank of Washington for a loan of 21 million dollars to finance the work. The new contract provided for the construction of (1) a dam on the Helmand near Kajaki, about 60 miles above Grishk, (2) a dam on the Arghandad river, below the village of Dahla


44
about 25 miles from Kandahar, and (3) extension of the Boghra canal some 35 miles into the Dasht-i-Margo, and also another branch-canal some 65 miles long, following the flood plain of the Helmand near the village of Shamalan.
Work on the above program proceeded with despatch. By the end of 1950, excavation of the Boghra Canal to its farthest extent in the Marja desert was completed.
Actual construction of the Kajaki Dam got underway in July 1951, and it was completed by January 1953. The site selected for this dam is at a point where the river flows through a deep narrow canyon in a limestone ridge. Jast above this site the valley widens into a broad alluvial plain, providing an excep-tional combination of a vast reservoir impounded by a very short dam.
At full development, the capacity of the lake is nearly 3,000,000 acre-feet (3,500 million cubic meters). The dam is of composite earth and rockfill type with a rolled-filled impervious core. The maximum height of the embankment above the foundation is 94 metres, and the length along the crest is 273 metres. The width of the dam at the base is over 400 metres. The total volume of material placed in the fill is about 3,225,000 cubic metres of which 1,285,000 cubic metres is rock. The dam also provides for building a hydro-electric plant and installing three turbines and generator units with a total capacity of some 120,000 kilowatts. This plant will be built in the future when markets and demand have developed for power of this magnitude.
The amount of land which has been farmed in the valley within the recent past is not known, but it is estimated that perhaps 350,000 jereebs (one jereeb is 1/2 of an acre) may be in crops in any one year. By the construction of the Kajaki Dam not only will


45

the acreage be increased by bringing in new lands under irriga-
tion, but all areas will be benefited by the increased and depend-
able supply of water which the dam will sustain. Furthermore,
it will make possible the double-cropping of a large proportion of
the area, i. e., two seasonal crops can be harvested from the same
land each year, which in effect doubles this acreage.

Arghandab Dam is located in a narrow valley in a region of
low mountain ridges, about 25 miles above where the river breaks
out onto the broad plain. The dam is about 60 metres high
above the rock base at maximum section, and 50 metres high
above the old river bed. The width of the base of the dam at the
maximum section is about 230 metres and the length along the
crest is 520 metres. It is a rolled-filled earth structure, and the
embankment contains about 2,500,000 cubic metres of water.
This dam will play a great rôle in the economic and social develop-
ments of the Arghandab Valley. It will also help in generating
electricity, some 6,500 kw, which is badly needed at Kandahar.

AGRICULTURE IN AFGHANISTAN

In most parts of the country agriculture is primitive and pro-
duces only a small part of what could be produced if the water-
supply were fully developed, and the best farming methods were
used.

Wheat is the principal crop, and in many places, the only
crop grown. Much of it is grown under the old system in which
the land produces one crop in two or three years, lying idle
in the alternate years. This is due partly to shortage of water,
but it is also commonly believed to be necessary to keep the
fertility of the land high. In a few places where soil fertility
is unusually high or where abundant manure is available, the
wheat crop is followed in the same year by a crop of corn


46

(maize). In other places, corn, which is the second most important crop in most parts of the country, is grown largely on land that has produced only grass for a number of years.

Pasture for livestock is seldom purposely grown, but usually consists of natural vegetation, wheat-stubble, or other crop residues. In certain places, where moisture conditions are usually good and grasses invade the land, a good pasture may exist, but often the forage is coarse and unpalatable, and not capable of feeding large numbers of livestock. Improved irrigated pastures, consisting of selected plants, such as clover and good pasture grasses may help in feeding livestock, which are generally underfed. Fertilization is practised to some extent but much less than it could be to good advantage. Animal manure, night-soil and ashes are the fertilizers generally used. Chemical fertilizers are not yet popular, although they would increase crop yields on many soils. Manure (cow-dung) is commonly made into cakes and burned for fuel, and this destroys much of its fertilising value, even if the ashes are applied to the land.

Farming is done largely by hand. The wooden plow, drawn by oxen, is the only common piece of farm equipment not worked by hand. Common tools are irrigation shovels, and hand-sickles. Small plots and tough sods are commonly spaded, whereas fields are generally plowed. Wheat is harvested with the sickle and collected in circular piles. The grain is trodded out by yoked cattle which are driven round and round on the piles. The grain is then separated from the chaff by winnowing—tossing the tramped mixture into the air and allowing the wind to blow away the chaff. This very slow and laborious system of harvesting and threshing is nearly the same that was in vogue some 2,000 years before in this part of the


47

world. It requires much labour, and the threshed grain is often very dirty. It is more wasteful of grain than in modern methods of harvesting by machinery.

Grapes are grown in a unique way, unknown in the other parts of the world. The vines are planted in trenches and trained upon high earthen ridges. This system, which is almost universal here, has both advantages and disadvantages. The ridges, once they are built, support the vine and protect the fruit from wind and excessive sunshine, and the trenches make irrigation easy. The fruit is sometimes damaged, however, if the ridges become wet through rain during the ripening period, although rain at this season is very rare here. Another disadvantage is that this system is waste of land, that is, fewer vines can be planted on each jareeb of land and, therefore, yields are less than when vines are planted by other systems. Still another disadvantage is the enormous amount of hand labour required in excavating the trenches and building the ridges.

Cultivation, as it is commonly practised in Western countries, is almost unknown in Afghanistan. The only crops grown in rows are some of the vegetables and melons which are grown on raised beds or ridges. Carrots are commonly grown in this way. Wheat, corn and most vegetable seeds are broadcast on flat ground. Weeds are pulled by hand or cut off with the sickle. Hard crusting of the surface soil after irrigation is a common trouble under this system, and this commonly prevents seedlings from emerging from the soil. It also causes a dense, hard condition of the soil that is unfavourable for the growth of many crop plants. The hard crusting and dense condition can be prevented to a considerable extent by mulching or heavy manuring.


قطغن
یک رمه اسپ
و شتر

Northern Afghanistan. A herd of horses and camels.


Afghan Mechanics at work.


Livestock is grown both on the range and on the farms,
but the number could be increased considerably and the quality
could be greatly improved by providing better pastures and
forage and by scientific breeding.

The commonest domestic animals are sheep and goats, but
they are raised more on the desert range than on the farms.
Close grazing by these animals over many countries has destroyed
most of the vegetation over large areas. They are efficient
meat-producers and also yield valuable wool, mohair, skin
and milk. On account of their destructive nature, however,
they should be well herded and kept away from valuable crops
and trees.

Cattle, although abundant on some farms, are less common
than sheep. They are used as work animals and milk producers,
and also produce meat and hides. Beef is not widely used here,
and is lean, tough and of low quality. The cows are also poor
milk producers. The inferior quality of the cattle is due partly
to poor breeding and partly to lack of nourishing feed, as they
are seldom fed grain or hay, and must get most of their sub-
sistence from poor pastures or stubble fields.


49

Irrigation in Afghanistan

The dry summer conditions necessitate irrigation of farm lands by means of streams which get water from the rivers or directly from the melting snow. This type of irrigation is generally confined to the high mountain districts. The inhabitants of these districts have shown remarkable skill in conducting water along the ledges.

Another system, very ingenuous and ancient, is known by the name of "Karez". It means conducting water through underground canals for the purpose of irrigation. This system is in vogue in various parts of the country, chiefly at the foot of mountains and in broad valleys surrounded by hills. The spot, where the water is to issue, must always be at the foot of a slope extending to a hill, and the ground must be examined to ascertain whether there are springs, and in what direction they lie.

In the selection of a site for a Karez the excavators are guided solely by experience and have no scientific appurtenances for assistance. A site is generally taken along the bank of a hill torrent or when such a torrent debouches from the mountains into the valley. Note is also taken of the appearance of the moisture and of the presence of moisture-loving shrubs and grasses. The next step is to dig one or two trial wells, and if they prove successful, a succession of wells are dug and connected by tunnels until the water reaches the surface. When a Karez is once constructed, its wells are of no further use, except to allow a man to descend occasionally to clear out the channel. The distances between the wells varies from 50 to 100 yards. Sometimes these tunnels have been pushed back as much as twenty miles.


50

In order to increase the supply of water it is sometimes found necessary to construct several branches at the top of the Karez. The cost of construction of a Karez varies with its length and the nature of the soil. The excavation of a Karez is expensive, and is generally constructed by joint capital and owned by several co-sharers. Passage of a Karez through land belonging to a stranger is allowed on payment in the from of a share in the Karez or cash.

Construction of dams or water- storage reservoirs, to hold up flood water, has been in vogue in this country from very ancient times. Remains of dams constructed even before the advent of Islam are to be seen in different parts of the country. Four such ancient dams, said to be constructed by Sultan Mahmood of Ghazni (998-1030 A. D.), are still to be seen in the vicinity of Ghazni. One of them known as Band-i-Sultan (Sultan's Dam) has been recently reconstructed, and is now known by the name of Band-i-Seraj. The present Government, alive to the importance of such dams in this country, has completed nearly half a dozen of these within the space of the last few years. Of these the Kajaki Dam and the Arghandab Dam are the most important. The construction of these water reservoirs has greatly improved the condition of the peasantry, and this creation of new acreage has, undoubtedly, been a strong inducement for the unsettled nomadic tribes to adopt a sedentary and peaceful mode of life.

Artesian wells are not yet very popular with the people. In some parts of the country use is made of the Persian water-wheel (Arhat) for purposes of irrigation.


51

Fruits

The Afghans are a fruit-loving people, and the dry summer
conditions of the country play a great rôle in the development of
this industry, for which Afghanistan has acquired world-wide
fame. One encounters beautiful gardens and orchards through-
out the country, where conditions are favourable. The lowland
of Jalalabad is famous for some fine species of citrus fruits.
Great varieties of deciduous fruits, such as apricots, peaches, plums
pears, and apples, as well as almonds, figs, pomegranates, mulber-
ries, walnuts and pistachios grow well in higher altitudes. Several
kinds of grapes, from pure white to dark black, in different sizes,
shapes and flavours are found in different parts of the country,
but especially in the districts of Kandahar, Herat and Koh
Daman.

The wild fruit trees and shrubs play by no means an
unimportant part in the nourishment of the people and foreign
trade of the country. Of these, pistachios occupies the first
place, this being a product of the northern districts-from Herat
to Kataghan. The pistachio tree generally grows on the loess
hillocks.

In south-western Afghanistan and in the forest zones of
the eastern and southern provinces, different species of
hawthorns, blackberries and current bushes are found in great
numbers. Whole thickets of barberry cover the river valleys of
the high mountains round Badakhshan and Nuristan. The nuts
of the edible pine (pignolia or Jalghoza as it is locally called) are
also one of the chief articles of food, and large quantities are
exported abroad. Besides, the country is extremely rich in
some medicinal plants, but so far only a few of them are made
use of,


52

Forest Vegetation

The forest vegetation of the country is extensive and varied.
The main ranges of the Speen Ghar and Asmar (in Nuristan) are
covered with dense coniferous forests. There are trees such as
cedrus deodara, abies excelsa, pinus longifolia, pinus piaster, pinus
pinea (or the edible pine), and larix communis. Besides these,
yew, hazel, juniper, wild walnut wild peach and almond trees are
also frequently met with in these forests. Under the shade of
these trees grow several varieties of roses, honeysuckle, currants,
gooseberries and hawthorns. The wild lemon and vines are also
very common. On the secondary heights, adler, ash, Khinjik,
arbor-vitæ, commercial indigo, dwarf laburnum, etc., grow
extensively. Lower still and down to 3,000 feet, the eye meets
wild olive, specimens of rock-roses, wild privet, acacia, mimosa,
barberry, wild palm and zizypus. Important forest products
are: timber, resin, charcoal, honey, wax, and pignolia. The
dense natural forests of Afghanistan stand mainly in the eastern
and north-western areas. The actual area of these natural
forests has not been determined so far, although their general
boundaries are pretty well-known. It has been estimated that
these natural forests do not occupy in excess of two-and-a-half
per cent of the land area of Afghanistan.

In addition to the dense forests there are certain other
lands occupied by shrubs and scattered tree growths. These are
more extensive and of great importance but do not yield large
quantities of forest products.

People who have made special studies of the flora of
Afghanistan claim that the dense and scattered forests were once
considerably greater in area and better in quality than now.
Their studies seem to conclude that forests and grass resources have


53

so decreased that the climate of the country has been affected, resulting particularly in less rainfall and greater variation of temperatures between winter and summer. Beides, throughout the country and particularly on the arid-desert type of lands, there is an urgent need for fuel. The Government of Afghanistan is very keen to preserve these natural forests as well as the grazing lands, and steps are being taken for reforestation.


54
Animals
Afghanistan is noted for its wild animals. The most im-
portant of these are: the wolf, fox, hyena, wild dog, wild cat,
jungle cat, common leopard, small Indian fox, mongoose, wild
sheep, onager (wild ass), mole, talpidae, Indian shrew,
collared-hedgehog, bats, jerboa, gerbit, deer, oorial, ibex,
pica and hare.
The wolves are particularly formidable during winter in
the cold districts when the land is covered with snow, and they
roam about in search of food. They often form packs and,
coming down the hills, prowl near villages, frequently destroying
cattle, sometimes even attacking men. They are said to run
ahead of their victim, and with their hind legs throw up snow
on his face and body, and, when they see that his hands and
feet are benumbed by the effect of snow, they fall upon him and
tear him to pieces. During winter one hears strange stories
about the daring of this ferocious animal.
The villagers use various methods to defend themselves
when attacked. When one of them is pursued by a wolf, with no
fire-arms to frighten him off, he generally follows this simple
method to get rid of his enemy. Tying one of his shoes to the
end of his turban, and holding the other end in his hand, he
lets the shoe trail after him. The wolf coming nearer his
victim is attracted by the shoe and tries to catch it, but finding
it moving forward, leaps aside. So this continues; the shoe keeping
the wolf occupied and at a respectable distance. Meanwhile
the villager, if fortunate, reaches his destination, and the wolf,
finding his life in danger, makes for the neighbouring hills.
The bear is also very common in all the wooded districts, but
it seldom quits its haunts. The bears are of two colours, black


55

and grey. The tiger is found near Kunduz, among reeds by the river sides. But now that the wastelands in and around Kunduz are being brought under cultivation, the number of tigers is fast diminishing.

The mountains, especially to the east and north, hold several species of the goat family, notably the Markhor, oorial and ibex. There is a fine kind of wild sheep in the Afghan Pamir, usually known by the name of Ovis Poli, whose horns form one of the most prized trophies in the sportsman's collection. These wild sheep, perhaps the largest of the class, whose long curved horns often measure sixty inches in length, were first made known to Europe by the Venetian traveller, Marco Polo, who visited the Pamirs in the 13th century A.D., on his way back to his native land, and from whom the sheep derives its Latin name.

The deer is also of two kinds: one called "Kohi" (mountain-bred) is found mostly in the central plateau on mountain sides; the other called "Dashti" (of plains) is mostly met with in the deserts of Bukwa, Chakhansur (bordering Seistan Lake), in the country around Herat, and in the northern plains.

Horses, camels, donkeys, sheep, goats, ponies, dogs and cats are the principal domestic animals. The horse claims the first place among all the domestic animals. A considerable number of horses are bred in every part of the country, but those of Kataghan and Mazar-i-Sharif are considered best. Camels are of two kinds; the ordinary one, which is comparatively taller and is generally used in deserts and plains; and the second, the two-humped Bactrian camel, which due to its long shaggy hair can easily stand the intense cold of Afghan winters.


The new motor-road between Kabul and Sarobi via Tong-i-Gharu gorge.


Typical Afghan mountain scenery.


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There are different kinds of sheep, such as the Turki, Ghilji, Hazaragi, and Kandahari. There is another famous breed of sheep—the Karakuli—which is reared for the sake of its skins. All Afghan sheep are remarkable for their distinctive fat tails, which are over a foot broad, and almost entirely composed of fat.

Northern Afghanistan presents an expanse only slightly elevated (average altitude being 2,000 feet above sea-level), with loess-like deep soil, mostly arable, or readily accessible to cultivation. A great part of this region forms an immense pasture, where throngs of livestock from many parts of the country come to graze. It is also here that the famous Karakuli sheep are reared. Every year millions of their newly-born lambs are killed for their fine glistening skins which have a ready market abroad, and, from an economic point of view, form the chief source of Afghan revenue.

Of the cows, those of the Kunar District, though of short stature, are considered the best. It is related that the pick of these Kunar oxen were sent to Macedonia by Alexander the Great to improve the breed there. Of the cats, the Burraqi, (Persian cat) is very famous and is noted for its long, lustrous and silky hair. Next in importance is the greyhound of Ghazni District, which has come to be known as the Afghan hound in foreign countries.

In Wakhan, in the extreme north-eastern corner of the country, herds of yak (Ghazhgaw) are met with. The yak stands about three feet and a half at the shoulders, and is a hairy and powerful animal, with its belly reaching within six inches of the ground, which is swept by its bushy tail. The long hair, streaming down from its dewlap and from its legs,


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gives it, but for the horns, the appearance of a huge Newfound-
land dog.

The yak is to the inhabitants of the Pamir what the
reindeer is to the Laplanders in Northern Europe. Like the
elephant it possesses a clear knowledge of what will bear its
weight. If travellers are at fault, one of these animals is driven
before them, and it is said that it avoids the hidden depths and
chasms with admirable sagacity. Its footing is sure, and faults
are seldom noticed. Should a fall of snow close a mountain pass
to man and horse, a score of yaks driven ahead answer the
purpose of the pioneers.

The yak usually frequents the mountain slopes and their
level summits. Whenever the mercury does not rise above zero,
it is the season most suitable for the activities of this animal.
If the snow on the elevated flats lies too deep for him to crop
the herbage, he rolls himself down the slopes and eats its way
up again. The heat of summer sends the animal to what is
termed the old snow, that is, the region of eternal snow ; the
calf being retained below as hostage for the mother's return, in
which she never fails.

In the summer the Kirghiz women, like the pastoral in-
habitants of the Alps, encamp in the higher valleys which are
interspersed among the snowy mountains and devote their whole
time to dairying. The men remain on the plains below and
attend to the agricultural part of the establishment, but
occasionally visit the upper stations ; and all speak with rapture
of these summer wanderings.

The yak's hair is clipped once a year, in spring. The
strong, wiry and pliant hair of the tail is made into ropes, which
for strength is the equal of that manufactured from hemp. The
hair of the body is woven into mats and also into a strong fabric